Psych Section 2 Exam 2

Learning (def, how many kinds, types) learning involes ome experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner -over 40 kinds -conscious and deliberate, or unconscious habituation general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding learning and behaviorism it can be observed and demonstrated, goes along with behaviorist psychology classical conditioning definition occurs when a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired witht a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. 4 basic elements of classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned stimulus conditioned response US (Pavlov dog part) unconditioned stimulus: something that will reliably produce a naturally occuring reaction (food in front of a dog) UR (Pavlov part) unconditioned response: reflexive action that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (dog's drooling because of food) CS (Pavlov part) conditioned stimulus: stimulus that is initially neutral, and produces no reliable response but is paired with US (bell, tone presented with food) CR conditioned response: reaction that resembles the UR but is produced by only a CS (dogs drooling when they hear the bell only) acquisition phase when US and CS are paired together second order conditioning conditioning when the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure (black sqaure paired with tone caused dogs to salivate even though it was never directly associated with food) extinction (CC) gradual elimination of learned response that occurs when the US is no longer present spontaneous recovery (CC) tendency of extinct behavior to recover from extinction after rest period how is relearning CS after spontaneous recovery? conditioning to CS is much more rapid than the first time generalization (CC) CR is observed even when CS is slightly different than original CS used during acquisition (cats and opening of drawers, different tone.....) discrimination (CC) the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli (cat no longer runs in when ever drawer is opened) when it doesnt lead to the US that is paired normally with real CS Little Albert -Watson and Rayners experiment on 7 month old baby to condition emotional responses to stimuli -shows that complex emotions can be conditioned -environment more important than genetics what brain structure is involved in CC? amyglada what suggests cognitive elements of CC? (study of...) -dogs didn't salivate at sight of pavlov because they knew he was not a reliable indicator -Rescorla and Wagner: CC only occurs when animal learns to set up expectations Rescorla and Wagner's study suggests cognition in CC CC only occurs when animal learns to set up expectations is CC easier if the CS is... unfamiliar *Resclora and Wagner higher order conditioning (CC) original CS is spoon then the spoon drawer triggers response.... US -> UR US+CS-> UR CS-> CR explanations of how classical conditioning works -stimulus substitution -information theory stimulus substituion (CC) +example -instead of hearing bell we see food -wrong -if this is taking place, we should always have the exact same response (Henriques example of flinching when shocked with bell but freezing when just bell is heard.) information theory (CC) CS is providing information abuot the US biological mechanisms (CC) cerebellum if cerebellum is damaged (CC)..... CR will be destroyed but not UR order from best to worst of timing of CC 1. delayed conditioning 2. traced conditioning 3&4: backward conditioning, and simultaneous conditioning delayed conditioning CS is presented up until the US is shown traced conditioning CS is presented, pause, then US is shown simultaneous conditioning CS and US are shown together backwards conditioning US is shown before the CS food aversions (CC) adaptive processcan occur with hours in betweenextinction is highly unlikelyGarciaException to CC rules evolutionary elements of CC -food aversions-preferred foods-biological preparedness operant conditioning a type of learning in which the consequences of an organisms behavior determine if it will be repeated in the future. The law of effect (OC +who....) Thorndike: puzzle box with catslaw of effect: behaviors that are followed by a satisfying state of affairs tend to be repeated and vice versa. Who is associated with reinforcement B.F. skinner reinforcer any stimulus that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it punisher any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it positive reinforcement something desirable is presented (something is added.... and its a reinforcer) negative reinforcement: something undesirable is taken away (something is taken away, and the taking away of it is reinforcing) positive punishment something undesirable is presented negative punishment something desirable is taken away types of reinforcers primary reinforcerssecondary reinforcers seconday reinforcers conditioned/learned reinforcers that can be used to get primary reinforcers (through association classical conditioning) (money) primary reinforcers food, comfort, shelter, biological needs... premack principle neutrality of reinforcers-discerning which of two activities someone would rather engage in means that the preferred activity can be used to reinforce a non-preferred one.-meaning that the activities can be reinforcing or punishing depending on many factors, not the basic nature. why punishment doesn't work may lead to behavior only being temporarily inhibited or hiddendoesn't teach a more acceptable alternativepunishment can be reinforcing (the kid that gets in trouble to get attention). if punishment is going to be effective... it must be consistentevery time that the behavior isn't punished, it is essentially reinforced. over-justification effect (+study) when external rewards can undermine the intrinsic satisfaction of performing a behavior(Lepper's study children who were given rewards to draw...) shaping reinforce successive approximations of desired behavior chaining reinforce last behavior in chain, add things until you get to the beginning of the desired sequence (always looking forward to the end)jimmy the sea lion schedules of reinforcement fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval, variable-ratiocrucial! fixed interval (FI) reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided that appropriate responses are madeeffect: little responding after reinforcement, then burst of responses right before interval is over (like students and studying) variable-interval (VI) a behavior is reinforced based on an average time since last reinforcementproduces steadier responding because time of next reinforcement is unpredictable (pop-quizzes...) fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made variable-ratio (VR) delivery of reinforceent is based on a particular average number of responsesreal estate agents (they don't get rewarded every house they show, but they get rewarded for every house they sell)casino VI and FI produce what kind of responding slow, methodical responding because it doesn't matter how many times they press it, just how often FR and VR produce what kind of responding high consistent rates of responding because the number of responses is directly related to the number of rewards.VR produce slightly higher rates of responding than FRthe higher the ratio, the higher number of responses intermittent reinforcement when only some of responses are followed by reinforcement continuous reinforcement reinforcement after every response intermittent-reinforcement effect (partial-reinforcement) the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement. superstitious behavior (OC) reenacting behaviors that had accidentally been reinforced. neural elements of operant conditioning James Olds and electrodes in rats brain and allowed rats to control electric stimulation to different parts of the brainlimbic system=intensely pleasurablemedial forebrain bundle: pathway through midbrain, to hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens Tolman suggests cognitionmeans to end relationship (stimulus does not directly evoke a response, but establishes an internal cognitive state, which then produces the behavior.rats and maze: their pace through the maze depended on how they thought they would be rewarded at the end. latent learning Tolman: something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the futurecognitive map cognitive map mental representation of the physical features of the environmentwhen maze was made more complex for rats, they still followed the right directioncognition cognitive elements of OC tolman, means-end relationship, latent learning, cognitive map evolutionary elements of OC rat going the wrong way the second time through the maze--knew that the food wouldn't be there the second time around. Observational learning Banduralearning takes place by watching others Bandura's study children and bobo dolls and adult model and how their behavior was alike neural component of observational learning mirror neurons mirror neurons fire when the animal is doing actionfire when the animal is watching the actions components of observattional behavior attentionretentionreproductionmotivation 3 functions of memory encodingstorageretrieval encoding the process by which we transform what we perceive think or feel into an enduring memory storage the process of maintaing information in memory over time retrieval the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored. 3 types of encoding processes elaborative encodingvisual imagery encodingorganizational encoding elaborative encoding actively relating new information to knowledge already in memoryfinding meaning of something brain in elaborative encoding left temporal lobe and lower left front labe visual imagery encoding stores new information by converting it to a mental pictureSimonides and recalling all the people by going around to each table and remembering brain in visual imagery encoding occipital lobe organizational encoding noticing the relationship among a series of items(waitress and how she groups things together into hot foods, cold food....) brain in organizational encoding upper surface of left frontal lobe memory storage process of maintaing information in memory over time memory store's three main divisions sensoryshort-termlong-term senosry memory store and two kinds place in which sensory information is kept for a few seconds or lessiconic and echoic iconic memory fast decaying store if visual information echoic memory fast decaying store of auditory information short term memory store place where nonsensory inofrmation is kept for more than a few seconds but less than a minute how to get around limitation of time of short term memory store rehearsing rehearsing process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it getting around limitation of quantity in short term memory chunking chunking combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks limitations of short term memory how much informationhow long it can hold information working memory active maintenance of information in short term storage. contemplating next move in a chess game long term memory store place in which information can be kept for hours, days, weeks, or yearsno known capacity brain in long term memory store hippocampus hippocampus damage can cause 2 diseases anterograde amnesiaretrograde amnesia anterograde amnesia the inability to transfer information from short term to long term retrograde amnesia the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a certain date best place to look for memories in the brain is between synpases LTP and long term memory storage -many LTP pathways in hippocampus-induced rapidly-last for a long time long term potentiation (LTP) enhanced neural processing that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections NMDA influences the flow of information from one neuron to another across the synapse by controlling the initiation of LTP in most hippocampal pathways. how NMDA works hippocampus has abundance of NMBA'd f NMDA receptors to become activated how NMDA receptors become activated 1. presynaptic neuron releases glutamate which attached to NMDA receptor on postsynaptic neuron2. excitation takes place in post-synaptic neuron retrieval cues "hints"external information tha tis associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind encoding specificity principle retrieval cues can serve as reminder when it helps recreate the specific way it was encoded state-dependent retrieval tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval-mood-under the influence-why its hard to look on the bright side when upset transfer-appropriate processing memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process it in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later-semantic judgements of word study-recall performance is best when the encoding and retrieval are both in same context/mood When people retrieve information that was presented earlier (trying to recall) = what brain structure right frontal lobe successfully remembering a past experience =what part of the brain hippocampal regionsensory areas that are part of an experience explicit memory declarativeepisodic: memory of experiences implicit nondeclarativememory of how to do thingsprocedural memory and priming procedural memory gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practicepart of implicit memory priming enhanced ability to think of a stiumlus suh as a word or object as a result of reent exposure to the stimulus(talk about a bike and then later are given this : b_ _ eguess the word is bike)part of implicit memory brain structures in implicit and explicit memory explicit: hippocampusimplicit:not the hippocampus... cortex? brain structures in implicit priming: less activity in the cortext (makes it easier for the brain) semantic memory +structure network of associated facts that make up our general knowledge of the worldnot the hippocampus episodic memory +structure collection of past personal experiences occurring at a certain time of placehippocampus 7 sins of memory misattribution, suggestibility, bias, absentmindedness, blocking, transience, persistence memory transience forgetting what occurs with the passage of tmie-ebbinghaus and list of nonsense syllables: most forgetting occurs right after event.... with increasingly less forgetting as time goes onforgetting does not happen at constant rateproactive and retoractive interference proactive interference old learning affects memory acquired later using hebrew while trying to learn spanish retroactive interference when new learning affects the old memories-learning of psych makes you forget philosophy absentmindedness lapse in attention (memory does not encode)lower activity in frontal region prospective memory remembering to do things in the future blocking the inability to retrieve information despite the fact you are trying to left temporal lobemight not have the right retrieval cues memory misattribution assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source-source monitoring-eye-witness problemsfalse recognition George Sperling flash letters and ask people to remember themtone indicating which linesuggests that it is encoded it just doesn't stay there very long George Miller 7 +/- 2 bits in short term memory Baddely working memory model working memory model (what phases) sensory>long term>working memory (central exec, articulatory/phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer)>long term levels of processing theory of memory encoding poolsurface vs deep = how much we think about itCraik and Lockhart Craik and Lockhart levels of processing theory of memorylist of words for people to memorize with different efforts elaboration: more people remembered Parallel Distributed Processing Model when we learn a piece of information, it does not exist by itself, it is somehow related/connected to everything else we knowWe strengthen connections to help us retrieve information explicit memories (declarative)episodicsemanticflashbulb Suggestibility tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollectionssimilar to memory misattribution but misattribution is distortions without specific suggestionsloftus studiesconcerns about psycho therapy bias distortiing influences of present knowledge, beliefs and feelings on recollection of previous experiencescurrent mood can bias. 3 kinds of memory bias egocentricconsistencychange consistency bias current knowledge and beliefs have biasing effects, recontruct the past to fit into the belief. change bias exaggeration of past and present egocentric bias exaggerate change between past and present to make ourselves look goodremember how we want to remember it persistence intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget, usually happens after disturbing or traumatic eventsmore vivid and enduring recollectionsflashbulb memoriesheightened emotion which watching events =better memory recall later hormones and structure for memory persistence amygladaadrenaline and cortisol enhance memory damage to the amyglada and memory damage to the amyglada will not impair normal memory function, but it will cause the mundane events to be remembered just as well as emotional ones. recall vs recognition recall: name the 7 dwarfsrecognition: give list of names and pick out the 7 dwarfs context dependent memory (who) Godden and Baddeleyplace/location serve as retrieval cues gordon bower mood-dependent memory cue-dependent theory dont have necessary cues for retrieval schemas mental framework representing our knowledge and assumptions about the worldremember things that are consistent with schema and ignore others Ceci study preschoolers and fake/real memoriescan't tell what is real and what is made up. -repression isn't possible? Williams study police records of child abuseinterviewed about it and someone deniedevidence of repressed memories hippocampus slow to mature (childhood amnesia)alcohol induced blackouts slow activity of hippocampus frontal cortex connecting fact with context (personal experiences) basal ganglia: procedural memory cerebellum classical conditioning out-group homogeneity (problem of what...) belief that people in another group besides your own are all the samecross-race identification instances of dissociation of implicit and explicit memory false fame: familiarity prompts fameillusion of truth: prior exposure to a statement makes it true, even if it is falseeyewitness transferenceunintentional plagiarism (cryptomnesia) distortions of memory in eyewitness testimony eyewitness transference (source monitoring)cross-race identification (outgroup homoegeneity)presence of a weapon how can I help my memory? (4 ways) spaced versus mass practicerecitation vs rereadingorganizationrelearning category specific deficit inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category while leaving the ability to recognize objects outside of that category undisturbed what does the fact that category specific deficit can occur right after birth suggest? that our brain is prewired to organize sensory and perceptual inputs into broad based categories Damage to ___ causes...left hemisphere of cerebral cortextleft temporal lobelower left temporal lobetemporal lobe meets occipital and parietal category specific deficitrecognizing humans""animals""tools Eleanor Rosch family resemblance theory family resemblance theory features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every memberno defining feature prototype  "best" or most typical memober of the categorypossesses most / all of characteristic featurescan change depending on context typicality and family resemblance scores are... correlated brain structures &prototypes visual cortexleft hemisphere exemplar theory we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the categorypersonal experiences brain structure & exemplar, +what brain activities basal ganglia and prefrontal cortexanalysis and decision making rational choice theory we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two humans excel at estimating ____ but not ___ frequency, probability availability bias items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently heuristics rule of thumb algorithm well defined sequence of procedures that guarantee a solutioncomputer, geometric proofs conjunction fallacy people think that two events are more likely to occur together than by themselves. representative heuristic decision making based on prototype prospect theory people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains frequency format hypothesis our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they ar eto occurpresenting information in frequency format capitalizes our evolutionary strengths ill-defined problem no clear goal and no clear solution path well-defined problem one with clear goals and a clear way to solve it means-end analysis (+who) Karl Dunckerprocess of searching for means/steps to reduce the differences between the current situation and described goal steps of means-end analysis 1. analyze goal2. analyze current state3. list differences4. reduce differences by:a. direct means  (not intermediate steps)b. generating a subgoalc. finding a similar problem with a known solution artificial concepts formal concepts that can be clearly defined by a set of rules (fruit) natural concepts casual or fuzzy concepts that do not have a precise set of properties (automobiles)tend to be man made how do we judge concepts? positive/negative instancessystematic/formal approachesprototypesexemplars inductive reasons vs deductive reasons specific to generalgeneral to specific functional fixedness the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problem mental set we get into a mental rut in our approach to problem solving and continue the old and ineffective method confirmation bias tendency to only look for what we believe in  belief perseverance the tendency to hang on to a discredited belief the problem with representative heuristic the tendency to assume that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is probably a member of that category. availability heuristic make judgments on frequencies based on available information anchoring effects tendency to use one stimulus as an anchor or reference point in judging a second stimulus escalation of commitment (definition + phases) +when we are not likely to escalate commitment definition: the tendency to become increasinly committed to a bad decision even if losses increasephases:initial phase: decision based on rational factors, just try againearly losses: reluctant to admit a mistake, desire to self-justificationcontinuing losses: external factors: social/political pressureswhen we are not likely: limited resources and when we can diffuse responsibility overconfidene we don't like to think about being wronggambler's fallacy gambler's fallacy the belief that you have lost so many times, you must win the next. just because it happens a certain amount of times in a row doesn't mean it will not happen again. entity theory of intelligence intelligence is fixed incremental theory of intelligence intelligence can cahnge Francis Galton Intelligence composed of two things:capacity for labor (strength)sensitivity to physical stimuli (ability to distinguish) lumpers vs splitters people who lump intelligence into one capacity vs people who split intelligence into many parts Charles Spearman two factor theory two factor theory General intelligence, underlies all mental abilitiesused factor analysisspecific intelligence factor analysis correlation among a number of different variables and who different things relate to one another Raymond Cattell 2 types of general intelligence:fluid intelligencecrystallized intellgience fluid intelligence problem solving, reasoning, declines over timecattell crystallized specific knowledge, increases over timecattell Louis Thurstone multiple factor theory  Thurstone found _ factors of human intelligence (+names) 7:verbal comprehensionnumber abilityword fluencyspatial visualizationassociative memoryreasoningperceptual speed Why Thurstone revised the intelligence theory there were more similarities between certain groups of skills, even though all the scores were about the same  Howard Gardner intelligence measured on standardized tests does not encompass the genius found in musicians, dancers, athletes....8 types of intelligence Gardner's 8 types of intelligence and an example of each linguistic: preachers/politicianslogical/mathematical: engineersspatial: pilotsmusical: musicians, mozartbodily-kinestheticinterpersonal: knowing what motivates people, therapistsintrapersonal: knowing own feelings/motivationsnaturalistic: appreciate patterns in nature Sternberg Triarchic Theory Triarchic theory:  3 kinds of intelligence: componential/analyticexperiential/creativecontextual/practical Binet Mental age problems with mental age as measure of intelligence if a 4 yr old and a 6 yr old and an 8 yr old all have the mental age of 8, are they all equally intelligent? no intelligence quotient ratio (+who) William Stern/Louis Termanmental age divided by chronological age multipled by 100 IQ ratio solved_____ but problems with _____ solved: the differentiation between mental ages and different chronological agesbut doesn't allow distinctions/comparison amongst adults because their intellectual abilities will level off normal curve properties -one mode/median/mean 1 standard deviation on normal curve 15 points _____% of population is 1 SD from average (points) and _______ % of population is 2 SD (points) 2/3 (60 percent ish) between 85-11595% between 70-130 David Weschler Weschler Intelligence Scales Wechsler's test yield 3 scores: verbal(comprehension, vocab...)performance (object assembly...)overall score validity the  extent to which a given tests assesses what is supposed to measure construct validity that the components in test are assessing what they are supposed to be  predictive validity the extent to which a given tests predicts the outcome.....? reliability dependability or consistency of a measure to give consistent results internal reliability all items/questions are refelcting the same thing test/re-test reliability same scores now and later interrater reliability consistent regardless of experimenter standardization definition and aims ensures that the conditions for taking the same are the same for all test takersreflect the differences in individuals, not in conditions. the heredity environment controversy to what extent is intelligence influenced by nature or by the environment (nurture) Flynn Effect IQ scores world wide have increased over generations Flynn effect explanations better nutritionmore complex tasks Claude Steel  Stereotype Threat stereotype threat bringing cultural sterotypes to one's awareness can affect performance syllogistic reasonsing assessing whether a conclusion follows two statements we believe to be true Binet: first to test children intelligencenatural intelligencetest would measure aptitude, not prior academic acheivement measurement of IQ for childrens vs adults ratio IQ vs deviation IQ deviation IQ divide test scores by average test score of people in same age group then multiply by 100 tests and 3 properties and how they are related responses, consequential actions, hypothetical propertymeasure of responses that are correlated with consequential behavior that are though to be correlated with hypothetical property intelligence scores are good predictors for... number of years of schooling someone will receive why do intelligence scores predict outcomes? (two kinds) 1. because they influence it (professional school requires testing)2. they have no influence over it (crime) primary mental abilities (+who) Thurstoneperceptual ability, verbal ability, numerical abilityseparate/independent but stable mathematical technique confirmatory factor analysis both spearman and thurstone were right3 level hierarchy:1. general factor (Spearman's g)2. group factors (Thurstone's primary mental abilities)3. Specific factor (Spearman's s)people have general ability of intelligence, made up of small set of independent sub-abilities which are made up of large set of specific abilities unique to certain tasks how to determine middle level abilities top down approach bottom up approach top down approach  start with broad survey of human abilities then looking to see which abilities intelligence tests measureSternberg3 kinds of intelligence creative, analytical, practicalHoward Gardner bottom up approach start with responses on intelligence tests to see what independent clusters formJohn Carroll and 8 kinds of middle level abilities Termans beliefs on intelligence and genetics 1. intelligence is product of his/her genes2 some racial groups score better than others on intelligence tests3. the groups that score best are genetically superior heritability coefficient statistic that describes the proportion of the difference b between peoples scores that can be explained by their genetic makeup what is the correlation between environment and the heritability coefficient and what does it mean? the more similar the environments the higher the coefficient because the differences in intelligence must be due to genes shared environment vs nonshared environment environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a house hold (diet..) vs. those environmental factors that are not experienced by all members of a household (teachers) the average difference between groups is ______ than differences within groups considerably less does SES or ethnicity predict intelligence better SES relative intelligence comparison in a groupstays stable over time absolute intelligence varies over time catecholamines biochemicals indicating the activation of emotional systems Walter Cannon fight or flight HPA axis hypothalamus> pituitary gland>adrenal gland brain activation in response to threat hypothalamus triggers the pituitary which releases adrenocorticoptropic (ACTH) which travels through the blood stream activating the adrenal glands which release cortisol and acetocholamines  (epinephrine and norepinepherine) which active the sympathetic nervous system which initiates an attack of escape Hans Selye General Adaption Syndromenoticed that many different stressors produced same response General Adaption Syndrome 1. alarm phase : body rapidly mobilizes resources to response to threat/fight or flight. Resistance is low2. Resistance: body adapts o high state of arousal, shuts down unnecesarry processes3 .exhaustion: resistence collapses and costs of stress finally calculate Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman studies of Type A type B personalities Bathrop first study to demonstrate decreased immune funcion in response to grief Stone college students study to find the relation  between daily life events and antibody levels Visintainer stress increases the rate of cancer spread type a personality competitive, time aware, hostile, angryprone to cardiac health problems type b laid  backnot prone to cardiac health problems phony type-b type a with an exterior type b MOST prone to cardiac health problems cognitive appraisal  primary: determining whether stress is something that is meaningfulsecondary: determining if it is a challenge or a threat, how will i deal with it to maximize the positive outcomes and minimize the negative hippocampus and PTSD hippocampus volume determines sensitivity to PTSDsmaller volume in PTSD Gilbertson  PTSD studies that suggest that reduced hippocampus (sensitivity to PTSD) is a preexisting condition Burnout state of emotion, physical, and mental exhaustion created by long term involvement in emotionally demanding situations and accompanied by lowered performance and motivationmost common in helping professions and when people define themselves in their careers repressive coping avoiding the stressorno or very few physical symptoms of stress rational coping thinking about the stressor3 stepsacceptanceexposureunstanding reframing finding new or creative ways to think about the stressor to reduce its threat body  management relaxation, biofeedback, aerobic exercise Hardiness 3 c'scontrolchallengecommitment Joseph Brady control experiments and stressmonkey experimentsbeing in charge carries a big burdenbut he didn't use random selection Weiss lack of control causes stressrats and shocks Langer and Rodin nursing home studies and how control affects life length coping strategy problem focused copingemotion focused coping emotion focused coping focus on relaxing our feelingsgood when we have no control over the situation problem focused coping solving the problems, ways to be successfulgood when we have control over the situation psychosomatic illness interaction between mind and body that can produce illness hypochondriasis psychological disorder in which a person is preoccupied with minor symptoms and develops an exaggerated belief that they signify a life-threatening illness somatization disorder combinations of multiple physical complaints that have no medical explanation conversion disorder apparently debilitating physical symptoms that appear to be voluntary but the person experiences as involuntary malingering fake medical/psychological behavior to get what they want optimism stable over timerelatively hereditary  when focus is on potential gains.. risk ______ aversa when focux on potential losses...risk _______ prone