Flashcard Set Preview
| Side A | Side B | ||
| 1 |
ion
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a charged atom; an atom
with an electron number that differs from its number of protons
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| 2 |
acid
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any
substance that yields
hydrogen ions when put in aqueous solution
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| 3 |
base
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any
substance that accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution; alkaline
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| 4 |
ester
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reaction product of alcohol (-OH) and carboxyl
(-COOH)
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| 5 |
lipids
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composed of fatty acids (polar molecules)
carboxyl (COOH) group at end of hydrocarbon...
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| 6 |
unsaturated fatty acids
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double bonds b/w some carbons, which influence how tightly packed fatty acids
are in...
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| 7 |
polyunsaturated fatty acids
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more than one double bond b/w carbons
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| 8 |
starch is broken down into _________
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glucose
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| 9 |
fat is broken down into ____________
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glycerol & fatty acids
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| 10 |
glucose is converted into ___________ for storage
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glycogen
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| 11 |
glycerol & fatty acids are broken down into __________ for storage
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triglycerides
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| 12 |
structure of steroids
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four-ring structure w/ unique side chains
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| 13 |
steroid types (examples)
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cholesterol- important component of cellular membranes hormones- testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
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| 14 |
phospholipid structure
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polar head- variable & phosphate group; hydrophilicnonpolar tails- fatty acids; hydrophobic
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| 15 |
proteins
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polymers of amino acids
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| 16 |
what makes amino acids unique?
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side-chains attached to the central carbon that have different chemical properties (ex: acidic/basic,...
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| 17 |
amino acids are linked together in proteins by ___________
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polypeptide bonds
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| 18 |
denaturation
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conditions like heat & altered pH can cause proteins to unfold (to denature) & lose...
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| 19 |
primary structure of a protein
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amino acid sequence, which determines final shape
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| 20 |
secondary structure of a protein
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polypeptide chains, which can take the form of beta-pleated sheets, alpha helices, or random...
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| 21 |
tertiary structure of a protein
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folded polypeptide chains
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| 22 |
what does the shape of a protein determine?
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it's biological function
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| 23 |
enzymes
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mostly proteins that lower the activation energy of a reactionan enzyme lines up w/ the active...
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| 24 |
competitive inhibition
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a
reduction in the activity of an enzyme by means of a compound other than the
enzyme's usual...
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| 25 |
allosteric inhibition/regulation
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the regulation of an
enzyme's activity by means of a molecule binding to a site on the...
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| 26 |
Potential energy is transformed
into __________, which is then dissipated as heat/sound
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kinetic energy
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| 27 |
what is thermodynamics?
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the branch of
physics that deals with energy
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| 28 |
what is bioenergetics?
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thermodynamics of biological systems
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| 29 |
Higher potential energy results in ________ disorder
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more
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| 30 |
chemical equation of photosynthesis
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CO2 +
H2O
→ Cn(H2O)n +
O2 ...
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| 31 |
photosynthesis is endothermic/exothermic?
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endothermic- requires energy (light) input
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| 32 |
chemical equation of respiration
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C6H12O6 +
O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
(glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide...
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| 33 |
respiration is endothermic/exothermic?
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exothermic- results in the release of energy
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| 34 |
The
energy released from exothermic biological reactions is “captured” in the form
of...
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ATP
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| 35 |
Basic ATP cycle
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1. energy from food pushes a 3rd phosphate group onto ADP2. energy is stored as a phosphate...
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| 36 |
oxidation
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when a substance loses electrons
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| 37 |
reduction
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when a substance gains electrons
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| 38 |
coupled reaction
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oxidation & reduction are always coupled in cells
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| 39 |
True/False: in respiration, oxygen combines directly with glucose. Explain.
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False. Electrons from glucose first transferred to electron carrier
compound, then to O2
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| 40 |
NAD+
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electron carriernicotinamide adeninedinucleotide
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| 41 |
what is the chemical equation for NADH
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NAD+ + 2 electrons (from glucose-derived compound) + 1
proton (usually from water) →...
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| 42 |
what is the chemical equation for the transfer of electrons to the electron transport chain
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NADH → NAD+ (now ready to accept more electrons) + H+ + 2 electrons (eventually transferred...
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| 43 |
oxidation of glucose (respiration) : the big picture
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1 glucose >> glycolysis>> yields 2 ATP ...
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| 44 |
glycolysis
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"sugar splitting"; takes place in all living things- can be the only phase in energy harvesting...
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| 45 |
What are the monomers of nucleic acids?
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nucleotides
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| 46 |
nucleotides are comprised of:
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a base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine) attached to a sugar, attached to a phosphate
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| 47 |
what is the sugar in RNA? DNA?
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ribose; deoxyribose
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| 48 |
nucleotides are connected by _____________
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phosphodiester bonds
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| 49 |
differences b/w prokaryotic/eukaryotic cells:
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in prokaryotes, DNA is in the nucleoid region, in eukaryotes it is w/in the membrane bound...
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| 50 |
why are cells so small?
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If cell is too large, plasma
membrane unable to control the entry & exit of substances...
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| 51 |
nucleus
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enclosed by double membrane; contains chromosomes, DNA, which are transcribed into (m)RNA
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| 52 |
nuclear pores
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mRNA processed in the nucleus are exported to cytoplasm through nuclear pores
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| 53 |
nuclear envelope
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.
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| 54 |
nucleolus
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part of the nucleus that produces rRNA
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| 55 |
free ribosomes
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tend to produce proteins that will be used
within the cell's cytoplasm or nucleus
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| 56 |
cytosol
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| 57 |
ribosomes
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translate mRNA sequences to the amino acid sequences of proteinfound in prokaryotic cells
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| 58 |
rough endoplasmic reticulum
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a network (reticulum) of
membranes that aids in the processing of proteins in eukaryotic cells;...
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| 59 |
golgi complex
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a network of membranes that
processes & distributes proteins that come to it from...
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| 60 |
plasma membrane
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defines the cell; controls the flow of substances into & out of the cellcomposed of phospholipids,...
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| 61 |
transport vesicle
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transport proteins from ER to golgi complex- buds off ER & fuses w/ golgi complex; bud...
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| 62 |
SER
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a network of membranes that is
the site of the synthesis of various lipids & a site...
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| 63 |
lysosomes
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"recycling tank"acidic interior digests (hydrolyzes) large molecules and organelles & converts...
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| 64 |
mitochondria
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"power house"site of respiration; descendants of bacteria that invaded host cell that were...
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| 65 |
cytoskeleton
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Network of protein
filaments that controls cell shape, movement, transportation of organelles...
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| 66 |
cytoplasm
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location where mRNA is transferred into protein
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| 67 |
microfilaments
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main fxn: changes in cell shape- can grow/extend to form pseudopodia (involved in the crawling...
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| 68 |
intermediate filaments
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main fxn: maintenance of cell shape- relatively stablecomposed of different types of fibrous...
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| 69 |
microtubules
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main fxn: maintenance of cell shape, movement of organelles, cell mobility (cilia & flagella),...
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| 70 |
Name parts of a plant cell that animals lack
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cell wall, central vacuole, chloroplasts
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| 71 |
plant cell wall
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composed of rigid polysaccharides (cellulose, lignin- wood)places a limit on cell absorption...
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| 72 |
chloroplast
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site of photosynthesis; have outer & inner membranes, thylakoids immersed w/in stroma (liquid)
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| 73 |
chlorophyll a
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pigment necessary for photosynthesis; give plants their green color
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| 74 |
thylakoids
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stack to form grana; electrons used in photosynthesis come from water contained in the thylakoid...
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| 75 |
stroma
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liquid interior of chloroplasts
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| 76 |
plant & animal cells communicate through __________ & ___________
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plasmodesmata & gap junctions
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| 77 |
plasmodesmata
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tiny pores b/w plant cells that allow for the movement of materials among cells
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| 78 |
gap junctions
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a cluster of many protein assemblies that align, forming communication channels b/w cells
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| 79 |
integral vs peripheral proteins
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integral proteins are bound to the hydrophobic interior of the cell membrane
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| 80 |
glycocalyx
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sugar chains that attach to proteins & phospholipids, serving as protein binding sites
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| 81 |
phospholipids
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composed of 2 fatty acid chains esterified to glycerolpolar (negatively charged) head: phosphate...
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| 82 |
role of proteins in cell membrane function
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1. structural support (attach to cytoskeleton)2. recognition (binding sites)3. communication...
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| 83 |
diffusion
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movement of molecules from areas of higher to lower concentration (from a higher to a lower...
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| 84 |
osmosis
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the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane (diffusion of water- moves...
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| 85 |
hypotonic solution
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lower concentration of solutes
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| 86 |
hypertonic solution
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higher concentration of solutes
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| 87 |
isotonic solution
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equal concentration of solutes
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| 88 |
passive transport
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any movement of molecules or ions across a cell membrane that doesn't require the expenditure...
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| 89 |
active transport
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molecules move through a transport protein against their concentration gradient; energy must...
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| 90 |
facilitated diffusion
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passage of materials is aided by a concentration gradient & a transport protein; part of...
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| 91 |
simple diffusion
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materials move down their concentration gradient through the phospholipid bilayer; part of...
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| 92 |
concentration gradient
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the difference between the
highest & lowest concentration of a solute within a given medium
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| 93 |
how are large particles & molecules are released from cells?
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exocytosis
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| 94 |
endocytosis
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the movement of large molecules/particles into a cell
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| 95 |
receptor-mediated endocytosis
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particles bind w/ receptors on cell surface that interact w/ clathrin (protein) to form a vesicle
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| 96 |
pinocytosis
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the movement of relatively large materials into a cell by
means of the creation of transport...
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| 97 |
phagocytosis
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"cell eating"; the movement of large materials into
a cell by means of wrapping extensions...
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| 98 |
Krebs cycle
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second stage of cellular
respiration; occurs in mitochondria (in the interior of the inner...
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| 99 |
electron transport chain
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3rd stage of aerobic energy
harvesting; occurs in the mitochondrial inner...
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| 100 |
oxidative phosphorylation
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formation
of ATP from proton gradient formed as a result of NADH & FADH2 oxidation
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| 101 |
ATP synthase
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Uses energy captured
in proton gradient formed by electron transfer chain to form ATP...
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| 102 |
what is glycolysis?
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the absence of air (oxygen)
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| 103 |
What is the body's preferred energy source?
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carbohydrates (glucose)
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| 104 |
mesophyll
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cells in which most photosynthesis is performed (contain chloroplasts)
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| 105 |
stomata
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microscopic openings on the leaf epidermis that allow CO2 in and water vapor out
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| 106 |
photosystem
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an organized complex of
molecules w/in a thylakoid membrane that collects solar energy &... |
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| 107 |
photosystem II
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electron hole created in reaction centre removes electrons from water, forming O2 and...
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| 108 |
photosystem I
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chlorophyll
a in reaction center gets excited, electron hole accepts electron from electron
transfer...
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| 109 |
what is carbon fixation?
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the incorporation of a gas into an organic molecule
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| 110 |
what is the key enzyme of the calvin cycle?
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rubisco
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| 111 |
Calvin cycle
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occurs in the stroma
the
set of steps in photosynthesis in which energetic electrons are...
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| 112 |
C4 photosynthesis
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a
form of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is first fixed to a four-carbon
molecule...
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| 113 |
Meiosis I
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process
by which haploid cells are produced from diploid cells
Prophase
I- homologous
chromosomes... |
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| 114 |
.
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.
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| 115 |
meiosis II
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Metaphase
II- Sister chromatids line up at new
metaphase plate
Anaphase
II- sister... |
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| 116 |
oogenesis
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results in 3 haploid polar bodies & 1 diploid
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| 117 |
nondisjunction
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a
failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis
when...
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| 118 |
aneuploidy
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a condition in which an organism has either more or fewer chromosomes than
normally exist...
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| 119 |
Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
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the most well-known outcome of aneuploidy in humans; caused by the gain of an additional
chromosome...
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| 120 |
Klinefelter syndrome
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XXY
men, phenotypically male in most
respects, tend to have a number of feminine features:...
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| 121 |
Turner Syndrome
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produces people who are phenotypically female, but who have only one X chromosome...
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| 122 |
A gene locus
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part of the DNA that has the gene; ea. member has the same gene
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| 123 |
Mendel’s Law of
Segregation
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differing characters in organisms result from 2 genetic elements (alleles) that separate in...
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| 124 |
metabolic pathway
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a set of enzymatically
controlled steps that results in the completion of a product or...
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| 125 |
Mendel’s
Law of Independent Assortment
|
during gamete formation (mitosis/meiosis), gene pairs assort independently of one another
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| 126 |
somatic cells are ___________gametes are ____________
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diploid (2n)haploid (n)
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| 127 |
Incomplete
Dominance
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a genetic condition in which the heterozygote phenotype is intermediate between either of the...
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| 128 |
Codominance
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a condition in which two alleles of a given gene have different phenotypic effects, with both...
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| 129 |
Polygenic
Inheritance
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the inheritance of a genetic character that is determined by the interaction of multiple genes,...
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| 130 |
key hereditary traits are mostly determined by __________
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proteins
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| 131 |
genes code for ___________
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proteins
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| 132 |
how are proteins formed?
|
1. DNA is transcribed onto a piece of mRNA2. mRNA exits nucleus & goes to a ribosome3....
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| 133 |
environmental causes of cancer
|
heredity, tumor viruses, tobacco use, alcohol consumption, industrial hazards, UV radiation,...
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| 134 |
characteristics of cancer
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sustained angiogenesis, self-sufficiency in growth-signals, insensitivity to anti-growth signals,...
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| 135 |
binary fission
|
division of bacteria |
|
| 136 |
chromatin
|
a molecular complex, composed
of DNA and associated proteins, that makes up the chromosomes...
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| 137 |
interphase- G1
|
Gap 1; cell grows & carries out normal functions
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| 138 |
interphase- S
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synthesis; cell duplicates chromosomes in preparation for mitosis & cytokinesis
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| 139 |
interphase- G2
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gap 2; cell continues normal functions
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| 140 |
mitotic phase- mitosis
|
duplicated DNA is moved to opposite sides of the parent cellProphase: duplicated chromosomes...
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| 141 |
mitotic phase- cytokinesis
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parent cell splits into 2 daughter cells
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| 142 |
True/False: cancer cells are aneuploid.
|
True; they have an abnormal number of chromosomes
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| 143 |
Proto-oncogenes
|
normal, cellular genes
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| 144 |
Growth factors
|
bind to receptors on the surface of the cell, changing the confirmation of the protein, activating...
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| 145 |
oncogene
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out of control growth; one is not particularly problematic
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| 146 |
Tumor
suppressor proteins
|
ordinarily maintain the proper balance of proliferation and quiescence, so tumors do not develop.When...
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| 147 |
Polyps
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the intermediate stage (become cancerous, eventually); the lining of the intestine grows over-exuberantly
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| 148 |
Chromosomal
translocation
|
a chromosomal
abnormality that occurs when two chromosomes that are not homologous exchange
pieces,...
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| 149 |
Antibodies
|
white cells produced by B cells (in the Bone marrow)the controlling part of the gene- in cancer...
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| 150 |
autosomal-dominant inheritance
|
dominant
genetic disorder caused by a faulty allele that lies on an autosomal chromosomeex:...
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| 151 |
autosomal-recessive inheritance
|
a recessive dysfunction related to an autosome (chromosomes
other than X &...
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| 152 |
x-linked inheritance
|
the
genes that cause them lie on the x-chromosome;
claim more male victims than femaleex:...
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| 153 |
Polyploidy
|
a condition in which one or more entire sets of chromosomes has been added to
the genome...
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| 154 |
chromosomal deletion
|
occurs
when a chromosome fragment breaks off & then does not rejoin any chromosome
ex:...
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| 155 |
restriction enzyme
|
enzymes that occur naturally in bacteria and are used in biotechnology
to cut DNA into desired...
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| 156 |
Plasmids
|
small DNA-bearing units of bacteria that lie outside their single chromosome; can replicate...
|
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| 157 |
Polymerase Chain Reaction
|
a technique for quickly
producing many copies of a specific segment of DNA; DNA, DNA nucleotides,...
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| 158 |
Genetic drift
|
the chance alteration of allele frequencies in a population, with such
alterations having...
|
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| 159 |
Bottleneck effect
|
populations can be greatly reduced through disease or natural
catastrophe; a change in...
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| 160 |
founder effect
|
a
small subset of a population can migrate elsewhere and start a new population;
brings...
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|
| 161 |
directional natural selection
|
when
natural selection moves a character toward one of its extremes
|
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| 162 |
stabilizing natural selection
|
intermediate
forms of a given character are favored over extreme forms; assumed to be...
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|
| 163 |
disruptive selection
|
when
natural selection moves a character toward both of its extremes; appears to
occur...
|
|
| 164 |
mutation
|
alteration in an organism's DNA base sequence: generally has no effect/ a harmful effect. beneficial...
|
|
| 165 |
gene flow
|
the movement of alleles from one population to anotheroccurs when individuals move b/w populations...
|
|
| 166 |
nonrandom mating
|
when 1+ member of a population is not equally likely to mate w/ any other memberincludes sexual...
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|
| 167 |
sexual selection
|
members of a population choose mates based on the traits the mates exhibit
|
|
| 168 |
natural selection
|
some individuals will be more successful than others in surviving & hence reproducing,...
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|
| 169 |
biological species
|
Groups
of interbreeding
natural populations
that are reproductively isolated
from...
|
|
| 170 |
allopatric speciation
|
biological populations that are physically isolated by an extrinsic barrier and
evolve intrinsic...
|
|
| 171 |
Fitness
|
the success of an
organism in passing on its genes to offspring relative to other members...
|
|
| 172 |
populations native to places with high UV intensity tend to have _________ skin
|
darker
|
|
| 173 |
What are the effects of low UV levels on light- & dark-skinned people?
|
light-skinned people have adequate vitamin D & folate & high fitnessdark-skinned people...
|
|
| 174 |
What are the effects of high UV levels on light- & dark-skinned people?
|
light-skinned people have adequate vitamin D, low folate & low fitnessdark-skinned people...
|
|
| 175 |
Are there racial differences in enzymes?
|
yes- can
effect the diagnosis of medications
|
|
| 176 |
what areas have the highest & lowest genetic diversity?
|
africa & oceania
|
|
| 177 |
serial founder effect
|
diversity is lost when populations relocate; explains the
pattern in human diversity
|
|
| 178 |
recombinant DNA
|
two or more
segments of DNA that have been combined by humans into a sequence that does...
|
|
| 179 |
reproductive cloning
|
cloning intended to produce
adult mammals of a defined genotype
|
|
| 180 |
cloning vector
|
self-replicating
agents that serve to transfer and replicate genetic material; the most...
|
|
| 181 |
short tandem repeats
|
at a given
location in the genome, one person will have one number of tandem repeats,
while...
|
|
| 182 |
CAM photosynthesis
|
a form of photosynthesis undertaken by plants
in hot, dry climates in which carbon fixation...
|
|
| 183 |
Rubisco
|
an enzyme that allows organisms to incorporate
atmospheric carbon dioxide into their own...
|
|
| 184 |
Photorespiration
|
an enzyme that allows organisms to incorporate atmospheric carbon dioxide into
their own...
|
|
| 185 |
Calvin cycle
|
the set
of steps in photosynthesis in which energetic electrons are brought together
w;/...
|
|
| 186 |
redox reaction
|
the process by which electrons are transferred from
one molecule to another; oxidation...
|
|
| 187 |
intermediate step b/w glycolysis and krebs
|
the 3-carbon pyruvic acid
molecule combines with coenzyme A, forming acetyl CoA,...
|
|
| 188 |
Inversion
|
when a chromosome
fragment rejoins the chromosome it came from, with its orientation
"flipped"...
|
|
| 189 |
Point mutation
|
a permanent mistake; a mutation of a single base pair in the genome; a slight
change in...
|
|
| 190 |
Germ-line cell mutations
|
heritable, can be passed on from one generation to the next
|
|
| 191 |
Transcription
|
the process by which the genetic information encoded in
DNA is copied onto messenger RNA;...
|
|
| 192 |
Translation
|
the process by which information encoded in
messenger RNA is used to assemble a protein...
|
|
| 193 |
Codon
|
an mRNA triplet that
codes for a single amino acid or a start or stop command in the translation
stage...
|
|
| 194 |
Introns
|
sequences that are cut out in editing out noncoding
sequences; "intervening" sequences;...
|
|
| 195 |
Exons
|
sequences
that are retained in editing out noncoding sequences; most are
"expressed"...
|
|
| 196 |
Codominance
|
a
condition in which two alleles of a given gene have different phenotypic
effects, with...
|
|
| 197 |
Pleiotropy
|
the phenomenon
of one gene having many effects
|
|
| 198 |
Tetrad
|
the
grouping formed by the linkage of two homologous chromosomes in prophase I of
meiosis....
|
|
| 199 |
Crossing over
|
process that occurs in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes exchange
reciprocal portions...
|
|
| 200 |
Independent assortment
|
the random distribution of homologous chromosome pairs during
meiosis; ensures that offspring...
|
|
| 201 |
chromatid
|
one of the 2 identical strands of chromatin
that make up a chromosome in its duplicated state
|
|
| 202 |
Atomic number
|
the number of
protons in an atoms nucleus
|
|
| 203 |
Isotope
|
various forms of
elements, b/c the number of neutrons in an element's nucleus may vary.
|
|
| 204 |
Solute
|
that which is
dissolved
|
|
| 205 |
Solvent
|
that which does the dissolving
|
|
| 206 |
Isomer
|
molecules that have the same chemical formulas but differ in the spatial
arrangement of...
|
|
| 207 |
quaternary structure
|
the way in which 2+ polypeptide chains come
together to form a protein
|
|
| 208 |
central vacuole
|
a large, watery plant
organelle that has many functions, among them the storage of nutrients...
|
|
| 209 |
entropy
|
a measure of the amount of disorder in a system
the greater the
entropy, the greater...
|
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