Flashcard Set Preview
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| 1 |
what is learning?
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permanent change in behavior that results from experience. Must be able to shows difference...
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non-associative learning
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single stimulus and a change in behavior. Habituation-decrease behavior. Sensitization-increase...
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associative learning
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association between two or more stimuli and a response (conditioning) classical-through repeated...
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Instrumental conditioning
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a particular behavior is emitted with increase frequency due to specific effecct on the environment...
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classical conditioning and Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Previously unassociated stimuli become associated through
repeated pairings in time and place
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Instrumental learning
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B.F. Skinner:All behavior is result of
stimulus-response/ E.L. Thorndike:Law of Effect –...
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What is memory?
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Ability to store and retrieve previously acquired
information. It is proof that one has learned...
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Classification of memory by time
period
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Persistence (short term is in seconds, intermediate is in hours, long term is in days or more)...
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Short and long term memory distinct
processes
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serial list learning=recency effect: better recall what is recent & primary effect: better...
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| 10 |
Recency and primacy effects across
species
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long delay is primary effect and immediate test is recency effect
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| 11 |
Long term declarative memory
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things you know and can tell others. usually acquired through learning
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Long term nondeclarative memory (procedural)
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things you know that you can show by doing (motor or perceptual skills)
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Patient H.M.
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surgery for intractable epilepsy caused memory lost of long term declarative memory
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Amnesia
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memory loss for some previously formed memories and cannot form new memories
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Retrograde amnesia:
Anterograde amnesia
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loss of memories formed in the past/inability to form new memories
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| 16 |
Patient N.A.
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damage to dorsalmedial thalamus and bodies of hypothalamus resulted in anterograde amnesia...
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| 17 |
Korsakoff's Syndrome
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anterograde amnesia+confabulation (create false stories)+damage to basal forebrain+Thiamine...
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subtypes of declarative memory
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damage to cortical areas and mainly personal memories were affected
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declarative Semantic Memory
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general knowledge, with no personal information attaches (facts, book knowledge)
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declarative Episodic Memory
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autobiographical information, life history and personal events (frontal cortical areas)
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processing of declarative memories
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Encoding:sensory selection->Consolidation (hippocampus)->storage: distributed in cortex (prot...
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| 22 |
Mortimer Mishkin
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tested declarative memory in animals notices delayed non-match to sample task
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| 23 |
Affect of Hippocampal lesions
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impair memory consolidation decline in memory performance with time
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| 24 |
Diencephalic memory structures
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(bottom left to top in counter clockwise) amygdala,hippocampus,thalamus,fornix, mammillary...
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info flow through MTL
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Cortical association, Parahippocampal and rhinal, Hippocampus, fornix, thalamus and hypothalamus
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| 26 |
What is cortex adjacent to the hippocampus also important for?
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important for declarative memory
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Episodic memory storage location
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storage in cortex in right frontal and temporal regions
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| 28 |
semantic memory storage location
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storage in cortex and perhaps in temporal bodies
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| 29 |
what neural mechanism underlie learning memory
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Charles sheerington found is shut off nerve cells ability to reproduce itself it amplifies...
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| 30 |
Hebbian synapses
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Donal O. Hebb-plasticity underlying memory formation. Synapses grew weaker if they arent effective,...
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| 31 |
Hebb's Dual trace hypothesis
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formation of memory sets up brief activity in neural circuit sustained activity builds stable...
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changes in brain result from experience
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enrich environment led to greater activity in ACH system and increase brain weights and cortical...
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enrich environment and experiences make new synaptic connections
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+ growth and branching of dendrites, resulting in new synapses, and more elaborate cortical...
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understanding of mechanism of memory form Aplysia
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Eric R. Kandel (invertebrates show non-associative forms of learning (habituation and sensitization)...
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| 35 |
Habituation
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long term, reduction in number of synapses; synaptic reorganization/ With repeated stimulation,
less...
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| 36 |
Synaptic mechanisms of memory in
mammals: LTP, LTD
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Long term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampus alters the strength of synaptic connections can...
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LTP depends on glutamate receptors: NMDA and AMPA
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AMPA recptors when activated depolarize the cell and NMDA can be inactive b/c of block by mg2ion....
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LTP induction
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depends on complex neurochemical cascade. It results in increased synaptic effectiveness (inc...
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Morris water maze
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test spatial learning and ..mouse found platform quick
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LTP induction correlation with learning and memory formation
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AP5 block NDA receptors and stops formation of LTP. Classic conditioning induces LTP in amygdala....
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Mouse model of Alzheimer Disease
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shows weak LTP and poor water maze performance.
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| 42 |
PET scans of Alzheimers
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premature aging of the brain and loss of memoryfor recent events (atrophy in frontal, parietal...
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learning with age
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ability to learn is impaired even in normal aging
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brains of Alzheimer’s patients
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found Plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
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Homeostasis
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maintenance of a constant, stable internal environment-achieved via brain and endocrine system
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temp regulation by negative feedback
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Endotherms: generate and regulate body heat internally/ Ectotherms: activity obtain heat from...
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hypothalamus
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sensors in the skin contact the hypothalamus and mediates response on different time scales....
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response to temperature variation
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behavioral-seeking heat
autonomic-sweeting/shivering, change in metabolism
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sites of rain responds to temp change
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Brainstem-low-level autonomic responses
Hypothalamus-slower coordinated response
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Hypothalamus acts like thermostat
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controls autonomic and endocrine systems
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endocrine system
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a collection of glands the main one is hypothalamus. It is a chemical communication system....
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two basic hormone types
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they are protein based one in amine hormone (thyroxine) and steroid hormone (estradiol).
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Functions regulated by two different receptor types
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protein is a metabolic type and direct action on cell function and output. Steroid hormone...
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hormones are like neurotransmitters
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manufac. and stored by cells/tissues that secrete them, release them when triggered by action...
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hormones are different from neurotransmitters
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hormones are released into bloodstream, bot synapse. Hormones carried to target tissue by blood...
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hormones are different from neurotransmitters (2)
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Endocrine communication is global, neural transmission is local to the synapse. Hormonal response...
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hormone secretion is monitored and regulated by feedback.
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autocrine: endocrine positive target cells and receives neg. target cell feedback is same but...
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Temperature control
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involves both brain and pituitary gland regulation. Stimulation of thyroid gland increases...
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Neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus release hormones.
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deliver hormones to the pituitary gland by the capillary network.
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when the pituitary recieves
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it releases hormones from the hypothalamus. these hormones releases are called tropic hormones...
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posterior pituitary importance
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regulates hydration and parental and social behavior. neuro-cell axon releases oxytocin and...
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Hydration regulation: level and concentration
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monitor volume of salt content. salt draws water out of cells and too little salt water pules...
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Hypovoplemic thirst:
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receptors monitor fluid volume. neuro cells release vasopressin into blood which constricts...
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Osmotic thirst:
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osmosensory neurons in hypothalamus measure osmotic pressure high salt causes water seeking...
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Renin-angiotensin system
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feedback mechanism for hydration: kidneys detek reduced fluid volume and secrete renine which...
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oxytocin implication
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Infants raised incustodial orphanages have low
levels of oxytocin, weak social attachment;...
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why intake food
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food supplies nutrients for function and growth and tissue repair. It supplies energy for maintenance...
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metabolism
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Energy nutrients obtained through breaking down complex molecules
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how is food energy used
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55% basal metabolism (heat, maintenance of cellular function, life support) 33% used for digestion,...
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Basal metabolism is homeostatic
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attempts to regulate body weight at ideal level; protects energy reserves, opposes weight loss...
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| 71 |
Energy storage required for constant supply of resources
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short term storage in liver, long-term storage in fat.
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Glucose
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crucial for normal brain function, extracted from food and used directly from brain. converted...
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| 73 |
food and hypothalamus
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regulates feeding behavior. VMH stimulation stops eating, lesion results in overeating. LH...
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| 74 |
leptin
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Fat cells secrete peptide hormone Leptin,
signals amount of energy reserve in fat
cells....
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peptides hormones
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stimulate appetite and others inhibit appetite (leptin, insulin, Ghrelin, Obestatin, PYY)
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obesity problems
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65% overweight, 31% obese this causes high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart and respiratory...
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Circadian rhythms
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rhythms include variation in activity, wakefulness, and physio/biochem variation. eg (diurnal...
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light dark cycles
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light info from retina to suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus synchronizes rythms....
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Biological rhythms (sleep-wake cycles)
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Removing time cues results in continued cycle with “free-run” Progression of sleep stages...
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Paradoxical sleep
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stage 5 sleep: EEG is like the awake state, deepest stage of sleep, REM, loss of muscle tone,...
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sleep patterns
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vary with species some stay awake have greater periods of rem sleep and others have more slow-wave...
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why sleep?
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Energy conservation, body restoration; protein synthesis, predator avoidance, memory consolidation
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sleep deprivation
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increase mortality, some function well with little sleep, effects on immune system, compromises...
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sleep-walking cycles
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forebrain generates slow-wave sleep, releases GABA in posterior hypoth. Reticular formation...
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During REM sleep muscle activity is what
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suppressed this prevents acting out of dreams
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Narcolepsy
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sleep-waking switch in hypothalamus.produces hypocretin send axons to basal forebrain. Degener...
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sleep apnea
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unreliable respiration. Cause over-relaxation of throat and diaphragm, or abnormality in brainstem...
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Aristotle and emotions
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determined by fluid expression with the body. made up of interaction between four humors too...
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Charles Darwin and Emotons
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Expression of emotions: Based on observation of animals and humans. Nature of emotions similar...
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William James: what is emotion
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Either separate and special centres, affected to them alone,are their brain-seat, or else they...
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Which is primary, Emotion or physiology
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William James and cal Lange came to the view that emotional experience was the result of physiological...
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Role of cognition?
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modulation of emotional and physiological response. Schachter and Singer group told no effect...
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Paul Ekman
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attempts to classify emotions: 7 basic emotions based on facial expression.
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Is emotional expression innate:
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Emotions developed after 9 months, last one is fear. Also a role for experiential influence
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Jerome Kagan
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high reactivity in infancy predicts later anxiety and insecurity.
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| 96 |
What are the neural mechanisms
involved in emotion?
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Data from electrical stimulation studies: Olds &
Milner (1954) reveal reward network
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| 97 |
Cortical control over subcortical structures
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Decorticate "sham" rage: animals lacking cerebal cortex respond to stimuli with rage.
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| 98 |
Kluver Bucy syndrome:
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Damage to large areas of temporal lobes results in tame, submissive behavior lack of emotions...
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| 99 |
James Papez
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Neural circuit for emotions. Papez Circuit. shows thoughts and feelings to interact, as in...
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Paul MacLean's modified circuit for emotion includes amygdala
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introduces limbic system to identify the circuit, actually Paul Broca was first to describe...
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| 101 |
MacLean's functional model of emotions
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three levels of behavioral control: Brainstem level (primative reflective, stereotyped), Limbic...
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regions involved in emotional behavior
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seeking expectancy-Nucleus accumbens, Fear-central and lateral amygdala, panic-anterior cingulate,...
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brain regions connected to feeling an emotion
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orbitfrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, insular cortex
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Critical component of emotion network Amygdala
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associated with negative emotions, electrical stimulation makes fear and aggression. seizures...
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Amygdala (2)
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receives input from all sensory systems via thalamus direct projection from olfaction. It has...
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Classical conditioning paradigm
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fear conditioning. Initially tone has no significants tone is paired with shock tone causes...
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Amygdala critical for emotional learning
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lesions eliminate fear conditioning. LTP is associated with fear. blocking it prevents fear...
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| 108 |
post traumatic stress disorder (can be caused by imbalance in stress hormones)
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intrusive recurrence of emotional arousal associated with traumatic events. Memory abnormalities....
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neural components of fear in PTSD
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happens on cortex, hippocampus, amygdala. can cause hyperventilation, become startle, depression,...
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Virtual Iraq
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Virtual reality system for treating PTSD in returning soldiers. cognitive-behavioral therapy...
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Henry Molaison
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anxiety disorders and mental illness
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stress is common trigger for anxiety related disorders
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there is hormonal responses, parasympathetic responses,sympathetic responses
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endocrine system responses to acute stress
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that is why before the jump we see in a spic in the effected endocrine system.
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stress
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prolonged stress compromises health. fatigue muscle wasting, hypertension, ulcers impaired...
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reciprocal relation
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among nervous endocrine immune systems
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Panic disorders
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generalizes anxiety disorder, persistent nonspecific, generalized anxiety and worry. Panic...
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anxiety reducing drugs
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depresses cortical function. opiates barbiturates alcohol, THC. bind in endogenous receptors...
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phobic disorders
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intense irrational fear, nonspecific arousal associated with specific object activity of situation.may...
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cyclic disorders
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obsessive compulsive disorder: recurrent thoughts action repeated many times. + activity in...
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serotonin
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regulates sleep and depression
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| 121 |
Tourettes syndrome
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repetitive motor behavior, tics, strong genetic components more common in makes, childhood...
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| 122 |
The dopamine System
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essential for the normal functioning of the central nervous system. it is used to treat...
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| 123 |
Severe mood disorder
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Bipolar Disorder-alternating bouts of mania and depression. affects 6 million americans. treated...
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| 124 |
Schumann bipolar
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move from severe mania, and severe depression.
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Major Depression
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chronic profound unhappiness, hopelessness, universal pessimism. Loss of energy interest appetite....
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depression disrupts circadian
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shorter latency to REM sleep, seasons affective disorder heightened sensitivity to seasonal...
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| 127 |
HPA theory of depression
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hypothalamic pituitary adrenal dysfunction. Higher levels of cortical could abnormal hypthalamic...
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| 128 |
Monoamine theory of depression
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disorder of manoamine neurotransmitters. Alleviated by MAO inhibitors. Exacerbated y frugs...
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| 129 |
Antidepressants
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treatments target monoamine pathways. SSRIs are used as antidepressants. they block uptake...
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| 130 |
Deep brain stimulation reveals complexity of depressive illness.
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hormones act via hypothalamus, reduced neurotrophines, neurogenesis in hippo campus.
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| 131 |
Schizophrenia
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thought disorder-impairment in logical in logical structure of thought. positive:gained abnormal...
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| 132 |
heritability of Schizophrenia
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higher heritability with closer relationship to schizophrenic ind. in MZ twins, affected twin...
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| 133 |
Ventricular enlargement occurs with what disease
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schizophrenia
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| 134 |
Shrunken and disorder hippocampus and amygdala
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Degree of disorganization correlated severity of schizophrenia. Possible disruption of neural...
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| 135 |
synaptic reorganization in adolescents
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excess gray matter loss in early onset. Excess gray matter loss in early onset schizphrenia
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| 136 |
Evidence for under activity in frontal cortex in schizophrenia
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Wisconsin card sorting – assay of frontal
cortex activity; can sort by shape, color,; rule...
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| 137 |
decreased activity in prefrontal cortex
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leads to hyperactivity in mesolimbic pathway.
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| 138 |
theories of schizophrenia (therapy from drugs alleviate symptoms not the disorder)
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neurodevelopment-abnormalities in structure and function set in motion/ Dopmanine-specific...
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| 139 |
glutamate hypothesis
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phencyclidine (PCP) developes as an anesthetic causes psychosis simial to schizophrenia including...
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| 140 |
PCP
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inactivates NMDA recpetors preventing glutamate from acting on cell, non-competitive antagonist...
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| 141 |
Phinneas Gage
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dramatic change in behavior, supports idea that disrupted frontal cortex function or lack of...
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| 142 |
psychopathology
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extreme disruption of normal social regulation of behavior no remorse yet charming. impulsive...
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| 143 |
Using fMri to study neural basis of psychopathology
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Dr Kent Kiehl uses a test instrument to categorize inmates at a correctional facility. Hypothesis...
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| 144 |
mechanism available for drug targeting
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post-synaptic and second messenger processes
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| 145 |
long term drug use effects
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tolerance (metabolic or funcitonal-countering drug effect), sensitization, withdrawel (unpleasant...
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| 146 |
Up-regulation
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increases number of receptors available to the
receptor’s antagonist
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| 147 |
Down-regulation
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Down-regulation decreases the number of receptors
available to the receptor’s agonist
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| 148 |
drug actions
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alcohol via GABA recpetors, cafeine stimulates realase of catecholamines, opiates work via...
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| 149 |
Ecstasy (MDMA)
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increase release of 5ht and DA, damages serotonin neurons,
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| 150 |
drug abuse and addiction
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alcohol, opiates, cannabinoids, stimulant, hallucinogens, addiction-continues use of substance...
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| 151 |
positive reward mechanism in addiction
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mesolimbic cortical rewards network active in development of drug dependence increase release...
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| 152 |
factors involves in addiction potential
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genetic-substance abuse heritable potential exist even in cases of adoption. sex-males more...
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| 153 |
Why is treatment difficult
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Addiction is physical as well as psychological; changes in the brain accompany addiction
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