Psychological disorders

Worry is chronic, uncontrollable, and excessive (6 months<)Associated with at least 3 symptoms in adults Restlessness; muscle tension; easily fatigued; difficulty concentrating; irritability; sleep disturbanceSignificant distress or impairment

Suddenly and repeatedly overwhelmed with brief attacks of terror1 month< of persistent concerns about the attacks and/or significant maladaptive change in behaviour related to the attacks

Fear of an object or situation, at least 6-month duration which is out of proportion to the actual danger or threat the object or situation presents after taking cultural contextual factors into account

Fear of social situations in which one is exposed to the scrutiny of others of at least 6-month duration‘Performance only’ specifier

Fear of venturing into public spaces of at least 6-month durationExperienced in at least 2 different situations: public transport; open spaces; shops, theatres or cinemas; line or crowds; outside at home alone

Recurrent obsessions - intrusive recurring thoughts, images or urgesAnd/or compulsion - irresistible impulse to engage in a behaviour counting avoidance checking cleansingThat are time-consuming or cause clinically significant distress of impairment Specifiers•with good, fair, poor, absent insight/delusional symptoms•tic-related

1) Avoidance-conditioning formulation (Mowrer, 1947)• Learned through classical conditioning (Watson & Raynor, 1920)• Maintained through operant conditioning 2) Modelling (Bandura, 1986)

Confront the feared stimulus (exposure treatments):• Systematic desensitisation (Wolpe, 1958)• Flooding• Modelling• Social anxiety disorder: Social skills training, relaxation & exposure•Virtual reality exposure treatments (Opris et al., 2012)•OCD: ritual/response prevention

Catastrophic misinterpretation of bodily stimuli (Clark, 1996)

Reinterpret frightening bodily sensations as resulting from stress and not from impending doom Cognitive-behavioural approach• Exposure: mimic the start of an attack by hyperventilating• Make cognitive link between behaviour and sensations• Combine with relaxation and social support

Theory based on attempts to shield ourselves from anxiety Type of anxiety disorder experienced depends upon:•The psychosexual stage at which the person is fixated•The defence mechanisms used to protect from id impulses (only partly successful) OCD (depending on the nature of the symptoms)•Fixation at anal stage•Reaction formation to id impulses•Obtrusive thoughts linked to unconscious id wishes

Insight into the unconscious conflict through interpretation of freeassociations, dreams, and transference

Problems• Little evidence that psychodynamic treatments are effective with OCD (Leichsenring & Steinert, 2016) Benefits•May demonstrate success on a case-study basis (McGehee, 2005)

Having a physical condition (e.g., diabetes), environmental factors (e.g., child abuse, and substance abuse (Munir & Takov, 2022) Natural disasters (Varner et al., 2016) Poverty, depression, and anxiety: Causal evidence and mechanisms (Ridley et al., 2020)

• Rule out mood, organic, or substance-induced disorder• Overall presence of the disorder for at least 6 months• Two of more of the following for at least 1 month:At least one core positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speechOther symptoms: grossly abnormal psychomotor behaviour (including catatonia), negative symptoms• Decline in self-care, occupational functioning, and/or social functioning