Flashcards
Products
▼
Quiz
Training
Poll
Survey
Games
Store
Knowledge base
ProProfs.com
▼
ProProfs.com
About Us
Contact Us
Follow @proprofs
Signup
Login
ProProfs Flashcards
Home
Create Flashcards
Browse
Pricing
Tour
Clients
▼
Clients
Testimonials
(855) 776-7763
EDT 8AM-4PM
Flashcards
›
My Flashcards
›
Intro to Cultural Anthropology - Sherpas and Sahibs Books Notes
› Download
Download (Intro To Cultural Anthropology - Sherpas And Sahibs Books Notes) Flashcards
Choose a format below:
TEXT Format (.txt)
MS-Excel Format (.xls)
Select delimiter »
Comma
Semicolon
Tab
New Line
Custom
Preview »
Side A ------ Side B Deconstructing Sherpa motives - do Sherpas climb for money? ------ Do Sherpas climb for money? Early Discourse – sherpas do not climb for money (natural instinct) Early discourse: natural instinct, love of mountains, love of sahibs (not for the money) Ortner’s Point Recongizing that Sherpas climb for money is major departure from romanticized writings of previous era An accurate recognition of a Sherpa point of view that had not been heard earlier Which camp first? Are Sherpas materialistic because of mountaineering? Sahibs’ claim Were Sherpas materialistic before mountaineering? Ortner’s claim – Sherpas have always been materialistic like everyone else on the globe, Sahib’s cast them in other light to denigrate them to “ethnic other” Final thoughts: What is a "Sherpa?" ------ High altitude porters still referred to as “sherpas” regardless of ethnicity. “Climbing sherpa” is job category describing locals who assist foreigners on climbs. A “sherpa” may not be a Sherpa. Reconfigurations? Sherpas first defined by job (dependable high-altitude porters). Association still lingers in our society. Early Obstacles to Mountaineering for Women ------ Cultural Beliefs/Concerns (menstruation offends gods). Could offend mountain deities Gender Stereotypes, Practical Concerns: Are women as strong as men? Do they sow discord in mixed gender company (bring women along, men on expedition fighting over them)? Are male sirdars willing to hire them? Who was Pasang Lhamu? ------ Sherpa woman organizes own Everest expedition (1993). Sponsored by San Miguel Reached summit, then died. First Nepali woman to climb Everest National Luminary of Nepal Sherpa women used climbing to reestablish relative equality with men (gender-radical politics to counter “macho drift” Sherpa women are gender radicals Our own Western society – suffrage movement, liberation movements of the 1970s, Ortner argues that people like Pasang Lhamu are gender radicals who use climbing Everest to exert change New forms of inequality? ------ Sherpas in positions of power (trekking company owners, trekking/climbing bosses). Exploitation or zhindak relationship (Ortner suggests you might be able to consider it in this way where the Sherpas are treating the other ethnic groups in a similar way to what they used to be treated by Sahibs)? How has mountaineering affected the Sherpas? ------ Reconfiguring Identity in Relation to Sahibs From high-altitude porters to first-rate mountaineers and partners in adventure, as seen in movie (Jamling Norgay). Sherpas slighted by sahibs, not mentioned in written accounts, photos not included in books, not given credit for summitting Today – rise of all Sherpa expeditions Leveling of Sahib, Sherpa relationship – thought of as partners in expedition Reconfiguring Identity Within Nepal Sherpas succeeded in elevating their ethnic identity to high status. Appa Sherpa – 19 times Everest Summit – most summits Women Mountaineers ------ 1970s: Women (Sherpa and non-Sherpa) enter formerly exclusive male domain. “Gender Radicals” – those who question or break gender rules. Focus of Chapter 8: “dialectics of sex”, or, “the complex tangle of gender dynamics as they were played out in Himalayan mountaineering Impact of Feminism ------ Liberation to travel and climb; resistance to sexism; resistance to paternalism Sherpa Women - Gender Stereotypes ------ Women lack the emotional characteristics to attain enlightenment Hence, hope to be reborn as a man Menstruation is polluting Hence, restrictions on mountaineering Traditionally Lower Status (partilocal marriage, males inhert parents assets) (best to be reborn as a man). Yet, little segregation of sexes, relatively egalitarian gender relations. Few constraints prevent women from women engaging in new activities. Public – Domestic dichotomy not very evident Which categories of the Sahibs are significant in Ortner's analysis? Race? Nation? Gender? Class? ------ Race Not significant category because sahibs can be white (from England) or Asian (from Japan) Nation Not significant category – relevant to political pride and climbing – not relevant to on the ground operations of expedition Yet Sherpas distinguish “national characters” Significant categories – gender, class Gender Significant category almost exclusively male domain, macho endeavor Class Significant category, class positioning of sahibs is important (well educated, upper middle class with financial resources) Sahib Games ------ Games as metaphor for how social life is lived Ortner’s usage – people are defined and constrained by the intersection of culture, power and history (structure) Active players in making (and sometimes remaking) those worlds that have made them (agency) Interplay between structure and agency Gender: Mountaineering and Masculinity ------ Physical Strength, Bravery and Courage, Authority and Leadership, Aggressiveness (within limits), Paternalistic Responsibility (for subordinates) – Sherpas are paternalistic toward sahibs?. Climbing as “Military Expedition” (“conquer” the mountain with final “assault”). Mountaineering as Critique of Modernity (by Sahibs coming from upper middle class society) ------ Spiritual element to mountaineering. One cannot hide “the awkward bulges and deformities in his make-up and character” under extreme conditions of mountaineering – critique of modernity. Modernity is the problem: Mountaineering is the solution. Normal life is safe, soft, routine, boring, materialistic Mountaineering – dangerous, difficult, unpredictable, transcendental Discovery of the Sherpas by the Sahibs ------ Climbers’ anti-modernism and romanticism shaped relations with Sherpas. Sherpa symbolized “all that had not been corrupted by the modern world” (part of nature, childlike). Early Discourse: Sherpas have physical attributes (strength, stamina, acclimatization) but lack the “spirit” to climb. Sherpas – good workers for this extreme endeavor Romanticizing of Sherpas Sherpas seen as lazy, need to discipline them - using military model to instill discipline, creating "childlike dependence" through paternalistic concerns and actions Sherpa reluctance in face of danger (and death) construed as lack of bravery, lack of self-control, excessive vulnerability to fear. How the British are perceiving, writing about the Sherpas When confronted with real hardships and dangers Sherpas have their tails down like other primitive people Sherpas Organize, Assert Agency ------ Himalayan Society (Kathmandu, capital of Nepal) – labor organization formed to control labor conditions on mountaineering expeditions to Everest; strikes, strikes, and more strikes (Sherpas use power of labor). Sherpas have power through their labor, use their agency to assert power and gain more control over working conditions New Era in Mountaineering (1950s-1970s) ------ Contradictory Trends: increasingly military style assault on mountains, yet persistence of romanticism. Pre-War – romantic, idealistic, mystical Post War = macho, boisterous, hyper-masculine (yet still imbued with romanticism), gender dimension exerting itself Mega-Expeditions Assault Style Ferrying loads up to higher and higher camps allow sahibs to adjust to high altitude until you reach the highest base camp when you finally assault to the top Who were the first people to summit Everest? ------ Edmund Hillary, Tenzing Norgay 1953 – first summit of Everest Post-War Machismo ------ Competition Competition between climbers (who is strongest, who will reach summit first). Sahibs Compete with Sherpas Sherpas have strength and endurance, yet lack “discipline and spirit” for climbing, climbing mountain for different reasons (sahib discourse rooted in romanticism). New type of Sahib discourse arises Raunchiness Heightened sexuality of mountaineering occurs while monastic movement de-eroticizing Sherpa culture. Working in contrast to monastic influence in Khumbu, get Sherpas to be moral, Sahibs bringing sexuality into their relationship, sexual banter between them and Sherpas, monks trying to dispell, quash this movement Impacts Sexual teasing = “making equality,” by teasing people equality is being made, Sherpas gaining status Shift in sahib discourse: Sherpas from “part of nature” to “partners in adventure” (partner implies equality) Macho shift among Sherpa men (from sexual egalitarianism – women and men not viewed as being different, men not seen as better than women to sexist attitudes), rise of sexist attitudes, degrading of women Uses of Religion in Mountaineering ------ Sherpas – use spiritual means to appease deities, make sure that they do not die Religion as Protection: spiritual means used by individual and community to ensure that no harm inflicted by deities. Religion as Resistance: “efforts to achieve some sort of control over the conditions of work within a framework defined and controlled by the sahibs.” Basecamp Puja – from private pujas in tent (1920s) to public pujas as prelude to climb (1970s) Sahib view – social solidarity, cultural respect Sherpa view – moral influence, and practical control over the sahibs, can control over mountaineering expedition/endeavor Basecamp puja – ritual of appeasement, ritual for protection Impacts of Counterculture ------ Revival of romanticism in mountaineering. Mysticism, nature (and extreme challenge) as means to commune with inner self. Mega expedition replaced by extreme style Reinhold Messner (in photo wearing Tibetan (Sherpa) amulet), respect for, reverence toward Sherpa culture – change from past relationship between Sherpas and Sahibs) First assent of Everest without oxygen (with Peter Habler) First to ascend all 8,000 m peaksNew ethos in climbing Mountaineering philosophy Stylistic concerns Style of climb important, don’t repeat, invent something new, creativity – approach climbing in a different way Saving the Mountains New forms of romanticism (environmentalism) Responsibility of mountaineers to defend mountain environments and mountain cultures Transformations in Mountaineering Downplay competitiveness; conscious of sexism; more open to Sherpa point of view Sherpa resistance + sahib self-questioning = more egalitarian ethos in mountaineering.Mega-Expedition replaced by “alpine style” assents (less gear, fewer people, no oxygen). Major Point “acts of resistance are claims for a certain kind of cultural or symbolic power, the power to define, or share in defining, the situation and relations in question. Categories matter.” Social hierarchy between Sahib and Sherpa has been broken down due to the resistance movement, counterculture movement Village temple vs. celibate monastery ------ A village temple Run by married lama, funded by tax system, resource redistribution A celibate monastery Run by incarnate lama, funded by patronage (in case of Sherpas – big people patronizing – building the temples, providing the funds to support the non-working monks, need funds to allow the monks to devote their lives and time to religious acts), requires surplus to sustain non-productive monks Monasticism and how it has shaped the Sherpa identity ------ Big Men – trans-Himalayan traders (social economic connections with Tibet) Big Men attain prestige by founding monasteries for celibate monks (promoting high religion) Sherpa identity becomes connected with Buddhism (celibate monastic form, not married lama form) Patrons = “Big Men” = Traders Connections with Tibet, reinforcing Tibetan aspect of identity through Buddhism. Big People – responsible for patronizing the temples, supporting celibate Buddhist monasticism Little people – become Sherpas, climbers in high altitude Sherpa Identity – formed through mountaineering and monasticism (Buddhism, mountaineering) = two core constituents of the identity of Sherpas today Sherpa Cultural Templates - Stoic reactions, suppressing emotions ------ Professionalism Need to complete one’s commitments and obligations (think zhindak relationship – faithful Sherpas in order to receive economic assistance in increase in status). Religious Perspectives Belief in incarnation, if people are crying the soul will have difficult time moving into the after life because it will remain attached to the crying relatives it left behind (interim time is a tenuous time between life and afterlife) High Religion: disciplining one’s emotions. Injunction against showing strong emotions after death (binds the soul through attachment). Point – the fact that Sherpas don’t publicly show emotions doesn’t mean they are fatalistic or that they aren’t saddened by death Sherpa Passivity and “Oriental Fatalism” ------ Sherpas sometimes show little emotional reaction after death of climbers (death common in this experience). Sahibs interpret it as “Oriental Fatalism” (“they don’t value life like we do”) – applied to Sherpas. “We need to make them understand that we who are of a different background and religion do not for the most part believe in reincarnation and therefore life and death for us are more important” Sahibs interpret that because the Sherpas practice the Buddhist religion and believe in reincarnation, they do not value life as much as those who do not believe in reincarnation (aka the Sahibs) You Can’t Beat Sahib Stereotypes Show Reaction? Consider Sherpas childlike (undisciplined) Little reaction? They are fatalistic (cultural determinism) Why are the Sherpas strong? Cheerful? Loyal? ------ Strong – those who migrated for portering jobs were little people used to carrying loads Cheerful – selling labor independence economic mobility using identity to gain prestige jobs Loyal – cultural conception of zhindak relationship, principles of reciprocity (something Sherpas value as much as cash) Religion in Khumbu ------ Until 1916 village temples, temples run by married lamas. 1916 – Present: Rise of Celibate Monasticism. Religion transformed in Khumbu Married Lama vs. Celibate monk ------ Married Lama Engaged in economy, family life, rituals for health and well-being of humans, crops and domesticated animals (worldly concerns), ritual battles with negative, demonic forces Celibate monks – removed from economy (full time religious specialist), removed from family life, rituals for health and well being, concerned with ritual purity and compassion Monks’ Campaign Married lamas are not skilled or powerful (detracted by family life, sin through mundane activities) Married lamas engage in supernatural violence (exorcisim ritual in book) Married lamas drink (leads to other social ills and fighting) Married Lama – low religion, celibate lama – high religion, conflict present Implications of Ranas taking power (1846) ------ Taxes increased, indebtedness increased, Darjeeling – British needed labor, shed excess males from poor households – send son to Darjeeling to engage in labor, creates new economic option for poor people of society **Sherpa Labor migrations to Darjeeling from 1850s to 1920s Why are Sherpas cheerful? ------ Selling Labor Independently; Upward Mobility (Social & Economic) - "escaping smallness"; Prestige Through Adventure and Travel; Resistance and Identity Resistance and Identity Not ordinary porters (strategic positioning of identity: distinguishing Sherpas from Tibetans and lowlanders). Low altitude portering degrading: Sherpas = “high altitude porters” – the higher you go in the mountains, the more difficult the work and the more money you get paid (Sherpas exclude other ethnic groups from mountaineering, leads them to feel better about their race/relate ability to ethnicity) Better equipment + better pay = higher prestige. Higher prestige = cheerfulness! In Sahib discourse, Sherpas are... ------ Naturally strong (biologically adapted for carrying loads at high altitude, naturally fit to do this, perfect porters). Naturally cheerful (innocent disposition, non-materialistic and part of nature). Naturally loyal (childlike and dependent). Sherpa Social Stratification ------ Big People – land, animal owners – Trans Himalayan trade (need yaks) Not rich, not poor Little people (tenants and servers) Carrying loads is a part of everyday life in Sherpa society. Who carries the load in Sherpa society? ------ Big people – don’t carry loads Not rich, not poor = carry own loads only Little people = carry own and others’ loads, therefore well-conditioned to do this, have acquired strength and stamina over time Big People = don’t’ need money, don’t work as porters Not rich, not poor – may need money, can work as porters Little people – need money, therefore will work as porters (advantageous because physically built to act as porters because of carrying that occurs in regular lifestyle) Loyalty and the Zhindak ------ Zhindak = patron, protector One who facilitates (not bestows) success. Patron who can help you rise, but not giving you something for free Egalitarian assumptions Talented yet disadvantage protégé Reciprocal relationships (protect and care for zhindak and he will care for you) Social difference diminishes as protégé succeedsSahibs misinterpret zhindak relationshipSeen as paternalistic relationship, Sherpas as childlike and dependent Ortner’s Point Zhindak is Sherpa cultural template. Sherpas look upon sahibs as zhindak. Sherpas serve (but are not servile to) the zhindak in exchange for possibility for upward mobility. Important Question of Representation ------ “If sahibs represent Sherpas in certain ways more consistent with their own fantasies and needs than with the Sherpa “reality”, and if at the same time the sahibs have power over the Sherpas, then to what extent might sahib representations come to impose themselves on Sherpa reality?” What effects do Sahibs’ representations of Sherpa culture and identity have on Sherpas’ own culture and identity? Sherpas constructed in sahib images that have little to do with reality Sherpas shaped by the images and the power behind those images, to actually conform to the sahibs’ desires (If that’s what they want us to be then that’s what they’ll get) Constructing Sherpas - Key Questions ------ Do Sherpas seek to become the kinds of people and have the kind of culture that sahibs (and the West) want? Do they conform to an ideal with strategic purposes in mind? (Do they think – if I act the way that the Sahibs want me to act then I will benefit) Or do sahib constructions and Sherpa “self-fashioning” take place “simultaneously, in a complex and unpredictable dialectic”? (sahibs portraying them in one way, shapes both perspective of sahib and sherpa) What was the Western discourse on Sherpas from 1920s-1970s? ------ Un – materialistic, carefree, undisciplined, childlike, innocent, happy Sahib’s power and need for authority – Sherpas in need of discipline Sahibs’ intense romanticism = Sherpas untouched and unspoiled Sahibs’ anti-materialism – Sherpas not in it for money What is the Sherpa/Tibetan language version of Mt. Everest? ------ Chomolangma = ("Residence of) the Pure Ox Goddess" Five Sisters of Long Life (Miyo Langzangma), view mountain as her residence Nuptse (Western Summit), Lhotse (Southern Summit) Kangtega (Horse Saddle Mt) Tamserkhu (Golden Horse Statue) Ama Dablam – “Mother’s Pendant,” mother with outstretched arms Sherpa Mountain Nomenclature Some associate with resident deities, some refer to geographic orientation, many are descriptive Mountains as Abodes of Deities ------ Ne – abode of a deity, place where one goes for direct encounter with that deity or power Nechen – great abode Neri – mountain abode Historical Background - Major Events ------ Conquest of Gorkha Kings, creation of Kingdom of Nepal. British Imperialism in India, clashes with expanding Nepal, Gurkha regiments. Younghusband Expedition to Tibet (1904) – open up British relationships with Tibet (opened door for mountaineering due to right to travel in Tibet), up until that time Nepal had a monopoly on trans-Himalayan trade Prithvi Narayan Shah (reigned 1743-1775) Founder of the Kingdom of Nepal – 1769 Unification of diverse ethnic groups under single administration Contemporary borders of Nepal – Gurka in center, clashed with British India to South, Tibet to North Sent in expedition to put down Shah, bloody, difficult attempt to colonize Nepal – ultimately recognized Nepal as independent, took some territory (Darjeeling) Recognition of Nepal’s boundaries Trade relations Nepal off-limits to British (and most Europeans) until 1950s 1600s-1914 – three competing empires – China, British, Russia Geographical essentials - towns, cities and regions ------ Countries = India, Nepal, Tibet, China Solu Khumbu (Sherpa homeland) Kathmandu (capital of Nepal) Darjeeling (British hill station, facilitate trade between British India, China, developed into important place during control of British) *Area of British India between Kingdom of Nepal and Butan is the Sherpa homeland Solu = lower part of the area Khumbu = higher, mountainous area Connected by Pharak Villages = Khumjung, Nauje (Namche Bazaar) - main trade point for trans-Himalayan trade, Junbesi (most important village in lower area) - lush, lower lying valley area Monasteries = Rongbu (important in previous Everest explorations), Tengboche (Khumbu area), Thami (Khumbu area), Chiwong (Solu area) Who is Mt. Everest named after? ------ Sir George Everest, surveyor General of India, in charge of massive project to map India, used triangulation to determine altitude, figured out that it was the highest peak mapped thus far in the entire world History of the Area continued ------ China Reasserts Control over Tibet 1949 Mao defeats Chiang Kaishek, birth of the People’s Republic of China 1951 – Chinese troops embark upon the peaceful liberation of Tibet British representatives expelled, Tibet off limits to foreigners (Mt. Everest closed from Northern side to foreigners) India and Nepal India gains independence in 1947 Decline of British influence and colonial presence in South Asia Nepal opens to the outside world, 1950 New opportunity to explore southern slope of Himalayas and approach Everest from Khumbu Expeditions start going toward Everest from Southern Side Who are the Sherpas? ------ Focus in on Tibetan plateau area – Sherpas come from eastern Tibet, made migration over to Khumbu some time during 1400s (migrated due to strife), speak eastern dialect of Tibetan languageSettled in high altitude area of Nepal, became farmers/herders to survive Ethnicity – Tibetan origin Language – dialect of Tibetan Religion - Buddhism Economy Pre 1870s - farming, herding and trade 1970-1950s – added wage labor and porters 1960s – present – mountaineering and tourism added Overview of the Book ------ Book about changing Sherpa identities. Perspective: Sherpa’s point of view (especially mountaineers). Sources of Evidence Used ------ Mountaineering Literature (perspective of the sahibs) –reading expedition notes from 1920s and 1930s to present. Interviews with Sherpa climbers (perspective of the Sherpas themselves)
Side A ------ Side B Deconstructing Sherpa motives - do Sherpas climb for money? ------ Do Sherpas climb for money? Early Discourse – sherpas do not climb for money (natural instinct) Early discourse: natural instinct, love of mountains, love of sahibs (not for the money) Ortner’s Point Recongizing that Sherpas climb for money is major departure from romanticized writings of previous era An accurate recognition of a Sherpa point of view that had not been heard earlier Which camp first? Are Sherpas materialistic because of mountaineering? Sahibs’ claim Were Sherpas materialistic before mountaineering? Ortner’s claim – Sherpas have always been materialistic like everyone else on the globe, Sahib’s cast them in other light to denigrate them to “ethnic other” Final thoughts: What is a "Sherpa?" ------ High altitude porters still referred to as “sherpas” regardless of ethnicity. “Climbing sherpa” is job category describing locals who assist foreigners on climbs. A “sherpa” may not be a Sherpa. Reconfigurations? Sherpas first defined by job (dependable high-altitude porters). Association still lingers in our society. Early Obstacles to Mountaineering for Women ------ Cultural Beliefs/Concerns (menstruation offends gods). Could offend mountain deities Gender Stereotypes, Practical Concerns: Are women as strong as men? Do they sow discord in mixed gender company (bring women along, men on expedition fighting over them)? Are male sirdars willing to hire them? Who was Pasang Lhamu? ------ Sherpa woman organizes own Everest expedition (1993). Sponsored by San Miguel Reached summit, then died. First Nepali woman to climb Everest National Luminary of Nepal Sherpa women used climbing to reestablish relative equality with men (gender-radical politics to counter “macho drift” Sherpa women are gender radicals Our own Western society – suffrage movement, liberation movements of the 1970s, Ortner argues that people like Pasang Lhamu are gender radicals who use climbing Everest to exert change New forms of inequality? ------ Sherpas in positions of power (trekking company owners, trekking/climbing bosses). Exploitation or zhindak relationship (Ortner suggests you might be able to consider it in this way where the Sherpas are treating the other ethnic groups in a similar way to what they used to be treated by Sahibs)? How has mountaineering affected the Sherpas? ------ Reconfiguring Identity in Relation to Sahibs From high-altitude porters to first-rate mountaineers and partners in adventure, as seen in movie (Jamling Norgay). Sherpas slighted by sahibs, not mentioned in written accounts, photos not included in books, not given credit for summitting Today – rise of all Sherpa expeditions Leveling of Sahib, Sherpa relationship – thought of as partners in expedition Reconfiguring Identity Within Nepal Sherpas succeeded in elevating their ethnic identity to high status. Appa Sherpa – 19 times Everest Summit – most summits Women Mountaineers ------ 1970s: Women (Sherpa and non-Sherpa) enter formerly exclusive male domain. “Gender Radicals” – those who question or break gender rules. Focus of Chapter 8: “dialectics of sex”, or, “the complex tangle of gender dynamics as they were played out in Himalayan mountaineering Impact of Feminism ------ Liberation to travel and climb; resistance to sexism; resistance to paternalism Sherpa Women - Gender Stereotypes ------ Women lack the emotional characteristics to attain enlightenment Hence, hope to be reborn as a man Menstruation is polluting Hence, restrictions on mountaineering Traditionally Lower Status (partilocal marriage, males inhert parents assets) (best to be reborn as a man). Yet, little segregation of sexes, relatively egalitarian gender relations. Few constraints prevent women from women engaging in new activities. Public – Domestic dichotomy not very evident Which categories of the Sahibs are significant in Ortner's analysis? Race? Nation? Gender? Class? ------ Race Not significant category because sahibs can be white (from England) or Asian (from Japan) Nation Not significant category – relevant to political pride and climbing – not relevant to on the ground operations of expedition Yet Sherpas distinguish “national characters” Significant categories – gender, class Gender Significant category almost exclusively male domain, macho endeavor Class Significant category, class positioning of sahibs is important (well educated, upper middle class with financial resources) Sahib Games ------ Games as metaphor for how social life is lived Ortner’s usage – people are defined and constrained by the intersection of culture, power and history (structure) Active players in making (and sometimes remaking) those worlds that have made them (agency) Interplay between structure and agency Gender: Mountaineering and Masculinity ------ Physical Strength, Bravery and Courage, Authority and Leadership, Aggressiveness (within limits), Paternalistic Responsibility (for subordinates) – Sherpas are paternalistic toward sahibs?. Climbing as “Military Expedition” (“conquer” the mountain with final “assault”). Mountaineering as Critique of Modernity (by Sahibs coming from upper middle class society) ------ Spiritual element to mountaineering. One cannot hide “the awkward bulges and deformities in his make-up and character” under extreme conditions of mountaineering – critique of modernity. Modernity is the problem: Mountaineering is the solution. Normal life is safe, soft, routine, boring, materialistic Mountaineering – dangerous, difficult, unpredictable, transcendental Discovery of the Sherpas by the Sahibs ------ Climbers’ anti-modernism and romanticism shaped relations with Sherpas. Sherpa symbolized “all that had not been corrupted by the modern world” (part of nature, childlike). Early Discourse: Sherpas have physical attributes (strength, stamina, acclimatization) but lack the “spirit” to climb. Sherpas – good workers for this extreme endeavor Romanticizing of Sherpas Sherpas seen as lazy, need to discipline them - using military model to instill discipline, creating "childlike dependence" through paternalistic concerns and actions Sherpa reluctance in face of danger (and death) construed as lack of bravery, lack of self-control, excessive vulnerability to fear. How the British are perceiving, writing about the Sherpas When confronted with real hardships and dangers Sherpas have their tails down like other primitive people Sherpas Organize, Assert Agency ------ Himalayan Society (Kathmandu, capital of Nepal) – labor organization formed to control labor conditions on mountaineering expeditions to Everest; strikes, strikes, and more strikes (Sherpas use power of labor). Sherpas have power through their labor, use their agency to assert power and gain more control over working conditions New Era in Mountaineering (1950s-1970s) ------ Contradictory Trends: increasingly military style assault on mountains, yet persistence of romanticism. Pre-War – romantic, idealistic, mystical Post War = macho, boisterous, hyper-masculine (yet still imbued with romanticism), gender dimension exerting itself Mega-Expeditions Assault Style Ferrying loads up to higher and higher camps allow sahibs to adjust to high altitude until you reach the highest base camp when you finally assault to the top Who were the first people to summit Everest? ------ Edmund Hillary, Tenzing Norgay 1953 – first summit of Everest Post-War Machismo ------ Competition Competition between climbers (who is strongest, who will reach summit first). Sahibs Compete with Sherpas Sherpas have strength and endurance, yet lack “discipline and spirit” for climbing, climbing mountain for different reasons (sahib discourse rooted in romanticism). New type of Sahib discourse arises Raunchiness Heightened sexuality of mountaineering occurs while monastic movement de-eroticizing Sherpa culture. Working in contrast to monastic influence in Khumbu, get Sherpas to be moral, Sahibs bringing sexuality into their relationship, sexual banter between them and Sherpas, monks trying to dispell, quash this movement Impacts Sexual teasing = “making equality,” by teasing people equality is being made, Sherpas gaining status Shift in sahib discourse: Sherpas from “part of nature” to “partners in adventure” (partner implies equality) Macho shift among Sherpa men (from sexual egalitarianism – women and men not viewed as being different, men not seen as better than women to sexist attitudes), rise of sexist attitudes, degrading of women Uses of Religion in Mountaineering ------ Sherpas – use spiritual means to appease deities, make sure that they do not die Religion as Protection: spiritual means used by individual and community to ensure that no harm inflicted by deities. Religion as Resistance: “efforts to achieve some sort of control over the conditions of work within a framework defined and controlled by the sahibs.” Basecamp Puja – from private pujas in tent (1920s) to public pujas as prelude to climb (1970s) Sahib view – social solidarity, cultural respect Sherpa view – moral influence, and practical control over the sahibs, can control over mountaineering expedition/endeavor Basecamp puja – ritual of appeasement, ritual for protection Impacts of Counterculture ------ Revival of romanticism in mountaineering. Mysticism, nature (and extreme challenge) as means to commune with inner self. Mega expedition replaced by extreme style Reinhold Messner (in photo wearing Tibetan (Sherpa) amulet), respect for, reverence toward Sherpa culture – change from past relationship between Sherpas and Sahibs) First assent of Everest without oxygen (with Peter Habler) First to ascend all 8,000 m peaksNew ethos in climbing Mountaineering philosophy Stylistic concerns Style of climb important, don’t repeat, invent something new, creativity – approach climbing in a different way Saving the Mountains New forms of romanticism (environmentalism) Responsibility of mountaineers to defend mountain environments and mountain cultures Transformations in Mountaineering Downplay competitiveness; conscious of sexism; more open to Sherpa point of view Sherpa resistance + sahib self-questioning = more egalitarian ethos in mountaineering.Mega-Expedition replaced by “alpine style” assents (less gear, fewer people, no oxygen). Major Point “acts of resistance are claims for a certain kind of cultural or symbolic power, the power to define, or share in defining, the situation and relations in question. Categories matter.” Social hierarchy between Sahib and Sherpa has been broken down due to the resistance movement, counterculture movement Village temple vs. celibate monastery ------ A village temple Run by married lama, funded by tax system, resource redistribution A celibate monastery Run by incarnate lama, funded by patronage (in case of Sherpas – big people patronizing – building the temples, providing the funds to support the non-working monks, need funds to allow the monks to devote their lives and time to religious acts), requires surplus to sustain non-productive monks Monasticism and how it has shaped the Sherpa identity ------ Big Men – trans-Himalayan traders (social economic connections with Tibet) Big Men attain prestige by founding monasteries for celibate monks (promoting high religion) Sherpa identity becomes connected with Buddhism (celibate monastic form, not married lama form) Patrons = “Big Men” = Traders Connections with Tibet, reinforcing Tibetan aspect of identity through Buddhism. Big People – responsible for patronizing the temples, supporting celibate Buddhist monasticism Little people – become Sherpas, climbers in high altitude Sherpa Identity – formed through mountaineering and monasticism (Buddhism, mountaineering) = two core constituents of the identity of Sherpas today Sherpa Cultural Templates - Stoic reactions, suppressing emotions ------ Professionalism Need to complete one’s commitments and obligations (think zhindak relationship – faithful Sherpas in order to receive economic assistance in increase in status). Religious Perspectives Belief in incarnation, if people are crying the soul will have difficult time moving into the after life because it will remain attached to the crying relatives it left behind (interim time is a tenuous time between life and afterlife) High Religion: disciplining one’s emotions. Injunction against showing strong emotions after death (binds the soul through attachment). Point – the fact that Sherpas don’t publicly show emotions doesn’t mean they are fatalistic or that they aren’t saddened by death Sherpa Passivity and “Oriental Fatalism” ------ Sherpas sometimes show little emotional reaction after death of climbers (death common in this experience). Sahibs interpret it as “Oriental Fatalism” (“they don’t value life like we do”) – applied to Sherpas. “We need to make them understand that we who are of a different background and religion do not for the most part believe in reincarnation and therefore life and death for us are more important” Sahibs interpret that because the Sherpas practice the Buddhist religion and believe in reincarnation, they do not value life as much as those who do not believe in reincarnation (aka the Sahibs) You Can’t Beat Sahib Stereotypes Show Reaction? Consider Sherpas childlike (undisciplined) Little reaction? They are fatalistic (cultural determinism) Why are the Sherpas strong? Cheerful? Loyal? ------ Strong – those who migrated for portering jobs were little people used to carrying loads Cheerful – selling labor independence economic mobility using identity to gain prestige jobs Loyal – cultural conception of zhindak relationship, principles of reciprocity (something Sherpas value as much as cash) Religion in Khumbu ------ Until 1916 village temples, temples run by married lamas. 1916 – Present: Rise of Celibate Monasticism. Religion transformed in Khumbu Married Lama vs. Celibate monk ------ Married Lama Engaged in economy, family life, rituals for health and well-being of humans, crops and domesticated animals (worldly concerns), ritual battles with negative, demonic forces Celibate monks – removed from economy (full time religious specialist), removed from family life, rituals for health and well being, concerned with ritual purity and compassion Monks’ Campaign Married lamas are not skilled or powerful (detracted by family life, sin through mundane activities) Married lamas engage in supernatural violence (exorcisim ritual in book) Married lamas drink (leads to other social ills and fighting) Married Lama – low religion, celibate lama – high religion, conflict present Implications of Ranas taking power (1846) ------ Taxes increased, indebtedness increased, Darjeeling – British needed labor, shed excess males from poor households – send son to Darjeeling to engage in labor, creates new economic option for poor people of society **Sherpa Labor migrations to Darjeeling from 1850s to 1920s Why are Sherpas cheerful? ------ Selling Labor Independently; Upward Mobility (Social & Economic) - "escaping smallness"; Prestige Through Adventure and Travel; Resistance and Identity Resistance and Identity Not ordinary porters (strategic positioning of identity: distinguishing Sherpas from Tibetans and lowlanders). Low altitude portering degrading: Sherpas = “high altitude porters” – the higher you go in the mountains, the more difficult the work and the more money you get paid (Sherpas exclude other ethnic groups from mountaineering, leads them to feel better about their race/relate ability to ethnicity) Better equipment + better pay = higher prestige. Higher prestige = cheerfulness! In Sahib discourse, Sherpas are... ------ Naturally strong (biologically adapted for carrying loads at high altitude, naturally fit to do this, perfect porters). Naturally cheerful (innocent disposition, non-materialistic and part of nature). Naturally loyal (childlike and dependent). Sherpa Social Stratification ------ Big People – land, animal owners – Trans Himalayan trade (need yaks) Not rich, not poor Little people (tenants and servers) Carrying loads is a part of everyday life in Sherpa society. Who carries the load in Sherpa society? ------ Big people – don’t carry loads Not rich, not poor = carry own loads only Little people = carry own and others’ loads, therefore well-conditioned to do this, have acquired strength and stamina over time Big People = don’t’ need money, don’t work as porters Not rich, not poor – may need money, can work as porters Little people – need money, therefore will work as porters (advantageous because physically built to act as porters because of carrying that occurs in regular lifestyle) Loyalty and the Zhindak ------ Zhindak = patron, protector One who facilitates (not bestows) success. Patron who can help you rise, but not giving you something for free Egalitarian assumptions Talented yet disadvantage protégé Reciprocal relationships (protect and care for zhindak and he will care for you) Social difference diminishes as protégé succeedsSahibs misinterpret zhindak relationshipSeen as paternalistic relationship, Sherpas as childlike and dependent Ortner’s Point Zhindak is Sherpa cultural template. Sherpas look upon sahibs as zhindak. Sherpas serve (but are not servile to) the zhindak in exchange for possibility for upward mobility. Important Question of Representation ------ “If sahibs represent Sherpas in certain ways more consistent with their own fantasies and needs than with the Sherpa “reality”, and if at the same time the sahibs have power over the Sherpas, then to what extent might sahib representations come to impose themselves on Sherpa reality?” What effects do Sahibs’ representations of Sherpa culture and identity have on Sherpas’ own culture and identity? Sherpas constructed in sahib images that have little to do with reality Sherpas shaped by the images and the power behind those images, to actually conform to the sahibs’ desires (If that’s what they want us to be then that’s what they’ll get) Constructing Sherpas - Key Questions ------ Do Sherpas seek to become the kinds of people and have the kind of culture that sahibs (and the West) want? Do they conform to an ideal with strategic purposes in mind? (Do they think – if I act the way that the Sahibs want me to act then I will benefit) Or do sahib constructions and Sherpa “self-fashioning” take place “simultaneously, in a complex and unpredictable dialectic”? (sahibs portraying them in one way, shapes both perspective of sahib and sherpa) What was the Western discourse on Sherpas from 1920s-1970s? ------ Un – materialistic, carefree, undisciplined, childlike, innocent, happy Sahib’s power and need for authority – Sherpas in need of discipline Sahibs’ intense romanticism = Sherpas untouched and unspoiled Sahibs’ anti-materialism – Sherpas not in it for money What is the Sherpa/Tibetan language version of Mt. Everest? ------ Chomolangma = ("Residence of) the Pure Ox Goddess" Five Sisters of Long Life (Miyo Langzangma), view mountain as her residence Nuptse (Western Summit), Lhotse (Southern Summit) Kangtega (Horse Saddle Mt) Tamserkhu (Golden Horse Statue) Ama Dablam – “Mother’s Pendant,” mother with outstretched arms Sherpa Mountain Nomenclature Some associate with resident deities, some refer to geographic orientation, many are descriptive Mountains as Abodes of Deities ------ Ne – abode of a deity, place where one goes for direct encounter with that deity or power Nechen – great abode Neri – mountain abode Historical Background - Major Events ------ Conquest of Gorkha Kings, creation of Kingdom of Nepal. British Imperialism in India, clashes with expanding Nepal, Gurkha regiments. Younghusband Expedition to Tibet (1904) – open up British relationships with Tibet (opened door for mountaineering due to right to travel in Tibet), up until that time Nepal had a monopoly on trans-Himalayan trade Prithvi Narayan Shah (reigned 1743-1775) Founder of the Kingdom of Nepal – 1769 Unification of diverse ethnic groups under single administration Contemporary borders of Nepal – Gurka in center, clashed with British India to South, Tibet to North Sent in expedition to put down Shah, bloody, difficult attempt to colonize Nepal – ultimately recognized Nepal as independent, took some territory (Darjeeling) Recognition of Nepal’s boundaries Trade relations Nepal off-limits to British (and most Europeans) until 1950s 1600s-1914 – three competing empires – China, British, Russia Geographical essentials - towns, cities and regions ------ Countries = India, Nepal, Tibet, China Solu Khumbu (Sherpa homeland) Kathmandu (capital of Nepal) Darjeeling (British hill station, facilitate trade between British India, China, developed into important place during control of British) *Area of British India between Kingdom of Nepal and Butan is the Sherpa homeland Solu = lower part of the area Khumbu = higher, mountainous area Connected by Pharak Villages = Khumjung, Nauje (Namche Bazaar) - main trade point for trans-Himalayan trade, Junbesi (most important village in lower area) - lush, lower lying valley area Monasteries = Rongbu (important in previous Everest explorations), Tengboche (Khumbu area), Thami (Khumbu area), Chiwong (Solu area) Who is Mt. Everest named after? ------ Sir George Everest, surveyor General of India, in charge of massive project to map India, used triangulation to determine altitude, figured out that it was the highest peak mapped thus far in the entire world History of the Area continued ------ China Reasserts Control over Tibet 1949 Mao defeats Chiang Kaishek, birth of the People’s Republic of China 1951 – Chinese troops embark upon the peaceful liberation of Tibet British representatives expelled, Tibet off limits to foreigners (Mt. Everest closed from Northern side to foreigners) India and Nepal India gains independence in 1947 Decline of British influence and colonial presence in South Asia Nepal opens to the outside world, 1950 New opportunity to explore southern slope of Himalayas and approach Everest from Khumbu Expeditions start going toward Everest from Southern Side Who are the Sherpas? ------ Focus in on Tibetan plateau area – Sherpas come from eastern Tibet, made migration over to Khumbu some time during 1400s (migrated due to strife), speak eastern dialect of Tibetan languageSettled in high altitude area of Nepal, became farmers/herders to survive Ethnicity – Tibetan origin Language – dialect of Tibetan Religion - Buddhism Economy Pre 1870s - farming, herding and trade 1970-1950s – added wage labor and porters 1960s – present – mountaineering and tourism added Overview of the Book ------ Book about changing Sherpa identities. Perspective: Sherpa’s point of view (especially mountaineers). Sources of Evidence Used ------ Mountaineering Literature (perspective of the sahibs) –reading expedition notes from 1920s and 1930s to present. Interviews with Sherpa climbers (perspective of the Sherpas themselves)
Everything is ready!
Let’s click on download button to download score report in Microsoft Excel format (.xls file).
