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Side A ------ Side B
Land Ethic: Ethical Holism ------ -version of holistic view- it is the biotic community itself that has intrinsic
value and, hence, moral standing-peoples value is derived from their role in the ecosystems 
28. What
     is Singer’s main argument supporting his claim that we do have an
     obligation to assist the poor of the world?

 ------ -if it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening 
without sacrifice, that it is our duty to do so.- if we can afford to 
help the poor then we must
29.Given that there may be some uncertainty about the
seriousness of global climate change, Christopher Flavin recommends that:  ------ -we need new energy technologies.- replacing fossil fuels would increase energy security and avoid dangerous climate change.
 30. Why does Mark Sagoff believe that economic approaches to the 
environment cannot adequately recognize the value we attach to the 
environment?  ------ -important to recognize the great value of nature's services-lie rejects efforts to attach a price to them as futile attempts to legitimize the standard cost-benefit policy framework, which he believes undermines the struggle to protect the natural environment
27. Garrett
     Hardin argues that we do not have an obligation to assist the poor around
     the world. What is his main reason?

 ------ If we are obligated to help the poor around the world then this would 
increase population growth beyond earths capacity and the environment 
will suffer from
26. What
     are the important differences between artificial selection and genetic
     engineering, according to Stephen Palumbi?

 ------ -artificial selection sorts among many genetically different 
individuals, each with a slightly different version of the desired 
features -genetic engineering generates a very small 
take-it-or-leave-it test plants. Therefore, artificial selection is seen
 as a safer choice than genetic engineering. 
24. What
     are the two fundamental norms of Deep Ecology?

 ------ * All living things are of equal moral worth or equal intrinsic value. *Self-realization * Transpersonal ecology
22. According
     to Paul Taylor, if we adopt an ‘attitude of respect for nature’, we will
     acquire three fundamental dispositions. What are they?

 ------ 1st) The disposition to promote and protect the good of organisms.  2nd)
 The disposition to see acts that tend to promote and protect the good 
of organisms as obligatory, precisely because they tend to do this.  3rd)
 The disposition to feel good (or bad) about certain states of affairs, 
because they help (or hinder) the good of organisms.  
23. State the basic moral principle of Aldo Leopold’s Land
Ethic ------ - first philosopher to challenge the concept of the 
individualistic ethics that was conventional for the time. -suggests that an action is right, “when it tends to preserve the
 integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong 
when it tends otherwise” 
25.Why
     do species matter, according to Lily-Marlene Russow?

 ------ -we should preserve species based on
 their aesthetic value.-aesthetic value 
is described referring to a single species value due to certain 
characteristics and that we should protect those characteristics of the 
individuals within the species and not the whole species.  
21.What
     does Paul Taylor mean when he claims that all living things have a ‘good
     of their own’?

 ------ Paul Taylor believes that all living things have inherent worth. To 
regard something with inherent worth entails two principles. First, is 
the principle of moral consideration which states that living things are
 deserving of moral consideration. Second, is the principle of intrinsic
 value which states that each living things possesses a good that is 
intrinsically valuable.  
18.Briefly describe prevailing western attitude toward to the environment, according to Lynn White ------ -man is inferior to nature and superior to the environment. -The 
earth is a resource for human consumption and we rule over this creation(man
 used to have an interactive relationship with the natural environment 
but this was changed with the industrial revolution..and wanting to know
 the possibilities of technology has increased even though it is 
destroying the environment)
19.What is Peter Singer's principle of equality? ------ -equality of equal consideration: equal consideration of interest among 
beings. -Embracing all human beings and all differences between them
20. What
     is Singer’s basic response to the objection that since animals eat each
     other, then it is morally permissible for humans to eat other animals?

 ------ -animals eat each other than it it is morally acceptable for humans to eat animals-Animals
 need to eat other animals as a means of survival.- We do not NEED meat 
to survive. eating meat is justified if it is needed for survival
17. Describe one common objection to Divine Command Theory ------ 

- divine command theory might imply that one can
only have moral knowledge if one had knowledge of God. -the theory seems to deny that atheists and agnostics can have moral
knowledge, rendering the theory useless.-On
semantic grounds, arguing that "being commanded by God" and
"being obligatory" do not mean the same thing


16. Describe one common objection to deontological theory ------ 

-Infants are not
rational beings. Yet it is surely wrong to treat infants as mere things.Many animals are not rational beings. Yet it is surely wrong to
abuse these animals. -Kant’s theory is absolutist. He states that we must always treat
others as ends, regardless of the good or bad consequences of doing this. Is
this correct? -Would it be morally acceptable to treat someone as merely a means
if, for instance, this was the only way to prevent serious harm to many


14.One common objection to Virtue Ethics ------ -criticism is drawn when trying to produce abiding principles and the
inability to provide a set or organization of guidance in acting in accordance
with the virtue theory.- virtue ethics does not provide
the same type of practical guidance that we thrive for and expect from other
normative ethical theories. -The virtue theory may be seen as subjective rather
than universal in the way of applying to personal moral 
15. One Common objection to Consequentialist Theory ------ -
consequences are all that matter in determining rightness and wrongness.-Don’t other things matter too?-Classical Utilitarian’s hold that pleasure (happiness) is the only
thing that is intrinsically good. Is this correct? Aren’t other things? -everyone’s pleasure (happiness) is equally important. Is
this true? Is it not morally permissible, at least sometimes, to give special
consideration to the pleasure of family and friends?
13. Categorical Imperative ------ -do not use people as
tools, every person has rights. -human beings occupy a special place in
creation, and morality can be summed up in one ultimate commandment of reason, from which all duties and obligations derive.- Absolute and
universal moral obligation.


13. Hypothetical Imperative ------ - not
universal or absolute, because they are necessarily conditioned on some goal or
desire. - take the conditional form of "If you want to achieve goal X,
you must perform act A."


11.Key Claim #3. Kantian ethics ------ -the rightness and wrongness of actions is entirely independent of their
consequences-revolve around duty rather than emotions or end goals-all actions
are performed in accordancce with some underlying principle-view of rationality
as the ultimate good and his belief that all people are fundamentally rational
beings. --rational
beings as ends not means
11.Key Claim #4: Virtue theory ------ -focuses on what makes
a person good or virtuous-a good or virtuous person, possesses honesty, loyalty, compassion etc. -does not give proper practical guidancee-must act in a way a
virtuous person would 


12. Humanity's Version of Kant's Categorical Imperative ------ -Demands
that we treat humanity as an end in itself. -this principle resonates
with currently influential ideals of human rights and dignity


11. Key Claim #2: Divine Command theory ------ 1. there is a god2.
god commands and forbids certain acts3. an act is right if and only god
commands it4. humans can sometimes ascertain what is that god commands and
forbids- if no god, everything permitted-unless claims are deserving of our
belief-must understand god loves us


11. Key Claim #1: Classical Utilitarianism  ------ -act in such a way that will produce the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people- it holds that actions are to be judged good or
bad according to their consequences.- An action is deemed to be morally right it
maximizes happiness-everones
pain is equally important
10. Moral Standing ------ 

-you can't
treat people like a tool or an object because it is amoral wrong-you have a
duty to humans to respect them and treat them as if they have moral standing




9.Thought Experiment ------ -A mental assessment
of the implications of a hypothesis. -devices of the imagination
used to investigate the nature of things


7.Moral Arguments require a combination of moral and non moral premises- why? ------ -morality is NOT subjective. - called moral relativism and is generally discredited by 
ethicists worldwide.- Moral values
 are based on moral theories, and the theory one ascribes to determines 
how one determines their moral values.   -non-moral values ARE subjective.  They're things which do not relate to an 
external system of determining objective right and wrong. 
8.Counter-Example ------ -counters a given claim-does the premise logically
     support the conclusion-if the conlcusion seems true, is the premise?-i
     did not kill the animal, but I ate it. -it saves my moral wrongdoing,
     therefore it was already dead, so i ate it


4.Valid Argument ------ -When the premise is
true, the conclusion must be true-if valid, it is impossible for the premises to
be true and the conclusion false-if premise true, the conclusion would also
have to be true-both true or invalid 


6.Inductive Argument ------ 
- probability rather than certainty (science), observe certain things, make a
conclusion based on probability-inferring general principles from specific
examples-premise make the truth of conclusion probable-even if premise is true,
conclusion may be false
5.Sound Argument ------ 

Has to have logical
power- evidences forces you to exceed to a conclusion-it is valid and the
premise are true-if president of the states, they live in the white house, bill
clinton is the preseident, therefore he lives in the white house




3.Deductive argument ------ -Premises are intended to guarantee the truth of the conclusion. -Must
have validity and sound. 
Third Traditional View: Fundamental Confusion ------  -the intuition behind this view contends
that it is based on a “fundamental confusion”. -what has aesthetic value is not
the species, but rather individual members of a species. 



- to protect things of aesthetic
value, and ensure their continued existence.
-some
species members have more value than others, and, hence, are deserving of
greater protection. 

Study Notes: Second Batch ------ second half of the guide he has sent us with answers
1. what is an argument? ------ -An attempt
to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons or evidence for accepting a
particular conclusion. -A reason or set of reasons given with the aim of
persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong.


2.Features of a good argument ------ 1.    
Premises
that are facts(true),good reason to believe truth2.    
Truth
of premises lead to truth of conclusion, support the conclusion3.    
If
deductive reasoning, it must be true. 


L-M Russow: Third Traditional View ------ 

- obligation to species is grounded in their intrinsic value.-not easy to say what the intrinsic value is grounded in. And unless
we know this, we don’t know how much intrinsic value a species has.  
L-M Russow: Second Traditional View ------ -our obligation to species is grounded in their instrumental or extrinsic value. 

- species are valuable because they are
useful to humans.

- species are valuable, because they are
important parts of complex ecosystems. 
L-M russow: First Traditional View ------ -Feinberg’s view: Our obligation to protect species is based on the
(alleged) fact that we are “stewards” or caretakers of the planet. -A problem
with this view, the job of a steward is
to protect things that have value. But what’s at issue is whether species have
value.


Lilly-Marlene Russow: Special Obligation ------ -obligations we appear to have to protect certain
species-explain our obligations to certain species by appeal
to duties we have to individual members of species-try to explain our obligations to certain species by
viewing the species itself as some kind of “super-entity” with interests and
rights of its own
Gould's species objectivity  ------ 

- species are objective-“in almost
all cases large-scale evolution is a story of branching”.-species typically through a process of branching, where one group of
an existing species branches off to form a new species and objectivity separates


why do species matter? Lilly-Marlene Russow ------ -species are becoming extinct at a disturbing rate.-species is a not a
morally relevant consideration. If that’s true, then we cannot treat one animal
differently from another, just because it belongs to a certain species.


What is species? Gould's View ------ -Gould argues “species are
almost always objective entities in nature.”-some argue that the division of animals into species
is “subjective” and therefore arbitrary


Living in accordance with deep ecology ------ -involve adopting a lifestyle that “treads lightly on the Earth”.- In cases of conflict, “vital” interests have priority over less vital
interests.


Biocentric-Equality ------ -the recognition that all entities are equal members of
an interrelated whole and, as such, have equal inherent worth
ultimate norms of basic principles ------ 1. self-realization2. biocentric-equality
Self realization ------ -process of broadening and deepening our sense of self.
Through this process, we come to see ourselves as part of a greater whole, or
Self
Principles and Practical implications of Deep Ecology ------ few basic principles:-the
     flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth has intrinsic value. The
     value of non-human life forms is independent of the usefulness these may
     have for narrow human purposes.- richness
     and diversity of life forms are values in themselves and contribute to the
     flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth.-humans
     have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy
     vital needs.-present
     human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the
     situation is rapidly worsening.


Ecocentric/ Non-anthropocentric World View ------ -view that borrows from philosophy, ecology, religion, mysticism- advocates a shift from “shallow” concerns about the
environment – e.g., how pollution affects human interests – to a deeper and
more direct concern for nature itself.


Deep Ecology ------ -not a single, unified view-ecocentric and nonanthropocentric “worldview” 


Land Ethics: implications ------ -nothing morally wrong with using animals as resources if it doesn't undermine the good of biotic communities.-often nothing wrong with using animals for food, as research subjects, or for
recreation-Herbicides, and pesticides is wrong and contributes to global warming
Land Ethic: Ecological Holism ------ -based upon two varieties of holism found in the science of ecology : epistemological holism and metaphysical
holism 


Ecological Holism: Metaphysical Holism ------ -the biotic community should be regarded as a distinct
kind of thing over and above its individual members. -Leopold suggests that “the land” is to be regarded as a living thing and it is our
responsibility to care for its health
Ecological Holism: Epistemological Holism ------ -we can gain an understanding of the individual members
of a biotic community only if we understand their roles in the community
Leopold's view (Land Ethic) ------ - the boundaries of moral
consideration should be extended to include soils, waters, plants, and
animals, or collectively, the land-Holistic view in various senses
Leopold's View: Right vs. Wrong ------ -a thing is right when it tends to preserve the
integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community- It is wrong when it
tends otherwise
Study Notes: First batch ------ first and second batch of review notes in this set. Including all s.a questions with answers.
Land Ethic ------ -version of ecocentric ethics

- ecological wholes have intrinsic value and moral standing.

Side A ------ Side B
Land Ethic: Ethical Holism ------ -version of holistic view- it is the biotic community itself that has intrinsic
value and, hence, moral standing-peoples value is derived from their role in the ecosystems 
28. What
     is Singer’s main argument supporting his claim that we do have an
     obligation to assist the poor of the world?

------ -if it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening 
without sacrifice, that it is our duty to do so.- if we can afford to 
help the poor then we must
29.Given that there may be some uncertainty about the
seriousness of global climate change, Christopher Flavin recommends that:  ------ -we need new energy technologies.- replacing fossil fuels would increase energy security and avoid dangerous climate change.
 30. Why does Mark Sagoff believe that economic approaches to the 
environment cannot adequately recognize the value we attach to the 
environment?  ------ -important to recognize the great value of nature's services-lie rejects efforts to attach a price to them as futile attempts to legitimize the standard cost-benefit policy framework, which he believes undermines the struggle to protect the natural environment
27. Garrett
     Hardin argues that we do not have an obligation to assist the poor around
     the world. What is his main reason?

------ If we are obligated to help the poor around the world then this would 
increase population growth beyond earths capacity and the environment 
will suffer from
26. What
     are the important differences between artificial selection and genetic
     engineering, according to Stephen Palumbi?

------ -artificial selection sorts among many genetically different 
individuals, each with a slightly different version of the desired 
features -genetic engineering generates a very small 
take-it-or-leave-it test plants. Therefore, artificial selection is seen
 as a safer choice than genetic engineering. 
24. What
     are the two fundamental norms of Deep Ecology?

------ * All living things are of equal moral worth or equal intrinsic value. *Self-realization * Transpersonal ecology
22. According
     to Paul Taylor, if we adopt an ‘attitude of respect for nature’, we will
     acquire three fundamental dispositions. What are they?

------ 1st) The disposition to promote and protect the good of organisms.  2nd)
 The disposition to see acts that tend to promote and protect the good 
of organisms as obligatory, precisely because they tend to do this.  3rd)
 The disposition to feel good (or bad) about certain states of affairs, 
because they help (or hinder) the good of organisms.  
23. State the basic moral principle of Aldo Leopold’s Land
Ethic ------ - first philosopher to challenge the concept of the 
individualistic ethics that was conventional for the time. -suggests that an action is right, “when it tends to preserve the
 integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong 
when it tends otherwise” 
25.Why
     do species matter, according to Lily-Marlene Russow?

------ -we should preserve species based on
 their aesthetic value.-aesthetic value 
is described referring to a single species value due to certain 
characteristics and that we should protect those characteristics of the 
individuals within the species and not the whole species.  
21.What
     does Paul Taylor mean when he claims that all living things have a ‘good
     of their own’?

------ Paul Taylor believes that all living things have inherent worth. To 
regard something with inherent worth entails two principles. First, is 
the principle of moral consideration which states that living things are
 deserving of moral consideration. Second, is the principle of intrinsic
 value which states that each living things possesses a good that is 
intrinsically valuable.  
18.Briefly describe prevailing western attitude toward to the environment, according to Lynn White ------ -man is inferior to nature and superior to the environment. -The 
earth is a resource for human consumption and we rule over this creation(man
 used to have an interactive relationship with the natural environment 
but this was changed with the industrial revolution..and wanting to know
 the possibilities of technology has increased even though it is 
destroying the environment)
19.What is Peter Singer's principle of equality? ------ -equality of equal consideration: equal consideration of interest among 
beings. -Embracing all human beings and all differences between them
20. What
     is Singer’s basic response to the objection that since animals eat each
     other, then it is morally permissible for humans to eat other animals?

------ -animals eat each other than it it is morally acceptable for humans to eat animals-Animals
 need to eat other animals as a means of survival.- We do not NEED meat 
to survive. eating meat is justified if it is needed for survival
17. Describe one common objection to Divine Command Theory ------

- divine command theory might imply that one can
only have moral knowledge if one had knowledge of God. -the theory seems to deny that atheists and agnostics can have moral
knowledge, rendering the theory useless.-On
semantic grounds, arguing that "being commanded by God" and
"being obligatory" do not mean the same thing

16. Describe one common objection to deontological theory ------

-Infants are not
rational beings. Yet it is surely wrong to treat infants as mere things.Many animals are not rational beings. Yet it is surely wrong to
abuse these animals. -Kant’s theory is absolutist. He states that we must always treat
others as ends, regardless of the good or bad consequences of doing this. Is
this correct? -Would it be morally acceptable to treat someone as merely a means
if, for instance, this was the only way to prevent serious harm to many

14.One common objection to Virtue Ethics ------ -criticism is drawn when trying to produce abiding principles and the
inability to provide a set or organization of guidance in acting in accordance
with the virtue theory.- virtue ethics does not provide
the same type of practical guidance that we thrive for and expect from other
normative ethical theories. -The virtue theory may be seen as subjective rather
than universal in the way of applying to personal moral 
15. One Common objection to Consequentialist Theory ------ -
consequences are all that matter in determining rightness and wrongness.-Don’t other things matter too?-Classical Utilitarian’s hold that pleasure (happiness) is the only
thing that is intrinsically good. Is this correct? Aren’t other things? -everyone’s pleasure (happiness) is equally important. Is
this true? Is it not morally permissible, at least sometimes, to give special
consideration to the pleasure of family and friends?
13. Categorical Imperative ------ -do not use people as
tools, every person has rights. -human beings occupy a special place in
creation, and morality can be summed up in one ultimate commandment of reason, from which all duties and obligations derive.- Absolute and
universal moral obligation.

13. Hypothetical Imperative ------ - not
universal or absolute, because they are necessarily conditioned on some goal or
desire. - take the conditional form of "If you want to achieve goal X,
you must perform act A."

11.Key Claim #3. Kantian ethics ------ -the rightness and wrongness of actions is entirely independent of their
consequences-revolve around duty rather than emotions or end goals-all actions
are performed in accordancce with some underlying principle-view of rationality
as the ultimate good and his belief that all people are fundamentally rational
beings. --rational
beings as ends not means
11.Key Claim #4: Virtue theory ------ -focuses on what makes
a person good or virtuous-a good or virtuous person, possesses honesty, loyalty, compassion etc. -does not give proper practical guidancee-must act in a way a
virtuous person would

12. Humanity's Version of Kant's Categorical Imperative ------ -Demands
that we treat humanity as an end in itself. -this principle resonates
with currently influential ideals of human rights and dignity

11. Key Claim #2: Divine Command theory ------ 1. there is a god2.
god commands and forbids certain acts3. an act is right if and only god
commands it4. humans can sometimes ascertain what is that god commands and
forbids- if no god, everything permitted-unless claims are deserving of our
belief-must understand god loves us

11. Key Claim #1: Classical Utilitarianism  ------ -act in such a way that will produce the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people- it holds that actions are to be judged good or
bad according to their consequences.- An action is deemed to be morally right it
maximizes happiness-everones
pain is equally important
10. Moral Standing ------

-you can't
treat people like a tool or an object because it is amoral wrong-you have a
duty to humans to respect them and treat them as if they have moral standing

9.Thought Experiment ------ -A mental assessment
of the implications of a hypothesis. -devices of the imagination
used to investigate the nature of things

7.Moral Arguments require a combination of moral and non moral premises- why? ------ -morality is NOT subjective. - called moral relativism and is generally discredited by 
ethicists worldwide.- Moral values
 are based on moral theories, and the theory one ascribes to determines 
how one determines their moral values.   -non-moral values ARE subjective.  They're things which do not relate to an 
external system of determining objective right and wrong. 
8.Counter-Example ------ -counters a given claim-does the premise logically
     support the conclusion-if the conlcusion seems true, is the premise?-i
     did not kill the animal, but I ate it. -it saves my moral wrongdoing,
     therefore it was already dead, so i ate it

4.Valid Argument ------ -When the premise is
true, the conclusion must be true-if valid, it is impossible for the premises to
be true and the conclusion false-if premise true, the conclusion would also
have to be true-both true or invalid

6.Inductive Argument ------ 
- probability rather than certainty (science), observe certain things, make a
conclusion based on probability-inferring general principles from specific
examples-premise make the truth of conclusion probable-even if premise is true,
conclusion may be false
5.Sound Argument ------

Has to have logical
power- evidences forces you to exceed to a conclusion-it is valid and the
premise are true-if president of the states, they live in the white house, bill
clinton is the preseident, therefore he lives in the white house

3.Deductive argument ------ -Premises are intended to guarantee the truth of the conclusion. -Must
have validity and sound. 
Third Traditional View: Fundamental Confusion ------  -the intuition behind this view contends
that it is based on a “fundamental confusion”. -what has aesthetic value is not
the species, but rather individual members of a species.

- to protect things of aesthetic
value, and ensure their continued existence.
-some
species members have more value than others, and, hence, are deserving of
greater protection.

Study Notes: Second Batch ------ second half of the guide he has sent us with answers
1. what is an argument? ------ -An attempt
to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons or evidence for accepting a
particular conclusion. -A reason or set of reasons given with the aim of
persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong.

2.Features of a good argument ------ 1.    
Premises
that are facts(true),good reason to believe truth2.    
Truth
of premises lead to truth of conclusion, support the conclusion3.    
If
deductive reasoning, it must be true.

L-M Russow: Third Traditional View ------

- obligation to species is grounded in their intrinsic value.-not easy to say what the intrinsic value is grounded in. And unless
we know this, we don’t know how much intrinsic value a species has.  
L-M Russow: Second Traditional View ------ -our obligation to species is grounded in their instrumental or extrinsic value.

- species are valuable because they are
useful to humans.

- species are valuable, because they are
important parts of complex ecosystems. 
L-M russow: First Traditional View ------ -Feinberg’s view: Our obligation to protect species is based on the
(alleged) fact that we are “stewards” or caretakers of the planet. -A problem
with this view, the job of a steward is
to protect things that have value. But what’s at issue is whether species have
value.

Lilly-Marlene Russow: Special Obligation ------ -obligations we appear to have to protect certain
species-explain our obligations to certain species by appeal
to duties we have to individual members of species-try to explain our obligations to certain species by
viewing the species itself as some kind of “super-entity” with interests and
rights of its own
Gould's species objectivity  ------

- species are objective-“in almost
all cases large-scale evolution is a story of branching”.-species typically through a process of branching, where one group of
an existing species branches off to form a new species and objectivity separates

why do species matter? Lilly-Marlene Russow ------ -species are becoming extinct at a disturbing rate.-species is a not a
morally relevant consideration. If that’s true, then we cannot treat one animal
differently from another, just because it belongs to a certain species.

What is species? Gould's View ------ -Gould argues “species are
almost always objective entities in nature.”-some argue that the division of animals into species
is “subjective” and therefore arbitrary

Living in accordance with deep ecology ------ -involve adopting a lifestyle that “treads lightly on the Earth”.- In cases of conflict, “vital” interests have priority over less vital
interests.

Biocentric-Equality ------ -the recognition that all entities are equal members of
an interrelated whole and, as such, have equal inherent worth
ultimate norms of basic principles ------ 1. self-realization2. biocentric-equality
Self realization ------ -process of broadening and deepening our sense of self.
Through this process, we come to see ourselves as part of a greater whole, or
Self
Principles and Practical implications of Deep Ecology ------ few basic principles:-the
     flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth has intrinsic value. The
     value of non-human life forms is independent of the usefulness these may
     have for narrow human purposes.- richness
     and diversity of life forms are values in themselves and contribute to the
     flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth.-humans
     have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy
     vital needs.-present
     human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the
     situation is rapidly worsening.

Ecocentric/ Non-anthropocentric World View ------ -view that borrows from philosophy, ecology, religion, mysticism- advocates a shift from “shallow” concerns about the
environment – e.g., how pollution affects human interests – to a deeper and
more direct concern for nature itself.

Deep Ecology ------ -not a single, unified view-ecocentric and nonanthropocentric “worldview”

Land Ethics: implications ------ -nothing morally wrong with using animals as resources if it doesn't undermine the good of biotic communities.-often nothing wrong with using animals for food, as research subjects, or for
recreation-Herbicides, and pesticides is wrong and contributes to global warming
Land Ethic: Ecological Holism ------ -based upon two varieties of holism found in the science of ecology : epistemological holism and metaphysical
holism

Ecological Holism: Metaphysical Holism ------ -the biotic community should be regarded as a distinct
kind of thing over and above its individual members. -Leopold suggests that “the land” is to be regarded as a living thing and it is our
responsibility to care for its health
Ecological Holism: Epistemological Holism ------ -we can gain an understanding of the individual members
of a biotic community only if we understand their roles in the community
Leopold's view (Land Ethic) ------ - the boundaries of moral
consideration should be extended to include soils, waters, plants, and
animals, or collectively, the land-Holistic view in various senses
Leopold's View: Right vs. Wrong ------ -a thing is right when it tends to preserve the
integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community- It is wrong when it
tends otherwise
Study Notes: First batch ------ first and second batch of review notes in this set. Including all s.a questions with answers.
Land Ethic ------ -version of ecocentric ethics

- ecological wholes have intrinsic value and moral standing.