learning |
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a relatively permanent change in behavior or the potential to make a response that occurs as a result of experience |
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classical conditioning |
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learning that occurs when 2 stimuli- a conditioned and an unconditioned stilulus- are paired and become associated with each other |
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neutral stimulus (NS) |
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stimulus that, before conditioning, does not elicit a particular response |
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unconditioned stimulus (US) |
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stim that automatically produces a response whithout any previous training |
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conditioned stim (CS) |
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neutral stim that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stim |
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unconditioned response (UR) |
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reaction that is automatically produced when an unconditioned stim is presented |
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conditioned response (CR) |
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response elicited by a conditioned stim that has been paired with an unconditioned stim; is similar to the UR |
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spontaneous recovery |
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reappearance of an extinguished CR after the passage of time |
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generalization |
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occurrence of responses to stimuli that are similar to a CS |
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discrimination |
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occurrence of responses only to a specific CS |
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learned motives |
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motives accquired, usually through classical conditioning |
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learned goals (incentives) |
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goals/incentives that are learned, usually through classical conditioning |
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blocking |
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situation in which the conditionability of a CS is weakened when it is paired with a US that has previously been paired with another CS |
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operant conditioning |
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learning that occurs when the participant must make a response to produce a change in the environment |
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Law of effect |
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thorndike's view that reinforcers promote learning, while punishers lead to the unlearning of responses |
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positive reinforcement |
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increases the frequency of a target behavior (response) that occurs when a behavior is followed by presentation of a positive reinforcer |
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primary reinforcer |
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stim that has innate reinforcing properties |
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secondary reinforcer |
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stim that accquires reinforcing properties by being associated with a primary reinforcer |
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shaping |
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form of operant conditioning in which a desired response is taught by reinforcment of successive responses that more closely resemble the target response |
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discriminative stim |
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stim or signal telling the participant that responding will be reinforced |
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punisher |
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stim that produces a decrease in responding; may take form of presentation or termination of a stim |
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latent learning |
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learning that has occurred but is not demonstrated |
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insight learning |
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sudden grasp of concept or solution resulting from perceptual restructuring; typically characterized by an immediate change in behavior |
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motivation |
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physiological and psychological factors that account for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior |
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instincts |
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unlearned species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stim |
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drive |
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internal motivational state created by a physiological need |
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drive-reduction theory |
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theory that views motivated behaviors as directed toward the reduction of a physiological need |
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optimum-level theory |
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theory that the body functions best at a specific level of arousal, which varies from individual to another |
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cognitive dissonance |
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aversive state produced when an individual holds 2 incompatible thoughts or cognitions |
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hierarchy of needs |
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Maslow's view that basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs |
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pheromones |
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chemical odors emitted by some animals that appear to influence the behavior of members of the same species |
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achievement |
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manipulation of the environment according to established rules to attain a desired goal |
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emotion |
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physiological changes and conscious feelings of pleasantness/unpleasantness, aroused by external/internal stimuli, that lead to behavioral reactions |
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James-Lange theory |
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theory that physiological changes precede and cause emotions |
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commonsense view of emotions |
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`emotions come before and cause bodily changes |
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cannon-bard theory |
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thalamus relays info simultaneously to the cortex and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing emotional feelings and physiological changes to occur at the same time. |
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facial feedback hypothesis |
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making certain facial expressions will produce the corresponding emotion |
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display rules |
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culturally specific rules for which emotions to display, to whom, and when |
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non verbal communication |
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communication involving: movements, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, use of personal space and touching |
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paralanguage |
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communication that involves aspects of speech such as rate of talking and tone of voice, but not the words used |
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memory |
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system or process by which the products or results of learning are stored for future use |
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nonsense syllables |
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stimuli used to study memory; typically composed of a consonant-vowel-consonant sequence |
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serial learning |
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learning procedure in which material that has been learned must be repeated in the order in which it was presented; also know as ordered recall |
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free recall |
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learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order |
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serial position effect |
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tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be learned better than items in the middle ex. ABCs |
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paired-associate learning |
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items to be recalled are learned in pairs. during recall, one member of the pair is presented and the other is to be recalled |
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recognition test |
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test in which retention is measured by the ability to pick out previously learned items from a list that also contains unfamiliar items |
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relearning test |
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test of retention that compares the time or trials required to learn material a second time with the time or trials required to learn the material the first time |
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savings score |
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difference between the time or trials originally required to learn material and the time or trials required to relearn the material; aka relearning score |
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encoding |
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first stage of the memory process; info is transformed or coded (a transduction process) into a form that can be processed further and stored |
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storage |
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2nd stage of the memory process. info is placed in the memory system. may involve either brief or long-term storages of memory |
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retrieval |
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3rd stage of memory process; stored memories are brought into consciousness |
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eidetic imagery |
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a form of memory, (photographic). especially vivid visual recollections of material |
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sensory memory |
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very brief but extensive memory for sensory events (.5-1 s for visual and 2-3 s for auditory stim) |
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short- term memory |
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info held in consciousness for 10-20 seconds |
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working memory |
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second stage of short term memory; attention and conscious effort are brought to bear on material |
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long-term memory |
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very large cappacity and capability to store info relatively permanently |
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maintenance rehearsal |
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rehearsal used when we want to save or maintain info for a specific period of time |
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elaborative rehearsal |
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rehearsal inwhich meaning is added to the material to be remembered |
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proactive interference |
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situation in which previously learned info hinders the recall of info learned more recently |
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retroactive interference |
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situation in which info learned more recently hinders the recall of info learned previously |
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levels of processing model |
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deeper processing of info increases the likelihood that the info will be recalled |
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explicit (declarative) memory |
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memories that we are consciously aware of, such as facts or personal events; can be subdivided into semantic and episodic memory |
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semantic memory |
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memory for general knowledge |
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implicit (nondeclarative) memory |
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memories we are not consciouly aware of but can still influence our behavior and mental processes; can be subdivided into priming and procedural memory |
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tip of the toungue |
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condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory |
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episodic memory |
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memory of one's personal experiences |
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flashbulb memory |
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very detailed memory of an arousing,surprising, or emotional situation |
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priming or implicit memory |
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unconsious memory processing in which prior exposure to stim items may aid subsequent learning |
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procedural memory |
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memory for making responses and performing skilled actions |
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semantic network |
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network of related concepts that are linked together |
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schema |
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grouping or cluster of knowledge about an object or sequence of events |
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encoding specificity |
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theory stating that the effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of the cues present when the memory was encoded and when it was retrieved |
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state-dependent learning |
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theory stating that when we learn something while in a specific physiological state, our recall of that info will be better when we are in the same physiological state |
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method of loci |
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use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been assiciated with them |
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pegword technique |
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use of familiar words or names as cues to recall items that have been associated with them |
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acronym |
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a word formed by the initial letters of the items to be remembered |
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acrostic |
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a verse or saying in which the first letter(s) of each word stand for a bit of info |
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anterograde amnesia |
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inability to store new memories after a traumatic event |
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retrograde amnesia |
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loss of memories that we stored before a traumatic event |
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consolidation hypothesis |
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hypothesis that memories must be consolidated or set before they can be stored |
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