learning |
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the precoess by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in nehavior or potential behavior. |
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classical (or Pavolvian) conditioning |
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the type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral, stimulus. almost by accident. |
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uncondtioned stimulus (US) |
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a stimulus that invariably causes an orgaism to respond in a specific way. |
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unconditioned response (UR) |
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a response tha takes place in an organism whenever an unconditoned stimulus occurs. |
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conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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an originallu neautral stimuls that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an orgaism when presented alone. |
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conditoined response (CR) |
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after conditioning, the response an organism produces when a conditioned stimulus is presented. |
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intermittent pairing |
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pairing the conditioned stimuls and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the laerning trials |
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desensitization therapy |
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a conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation |
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preparedness |
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a biological readiness to learn vertain associations because of their survival advantages |
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conditioned taste aversion |
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conditioned avoidance of certain foods even if there is only one pairing of conditoned and unconditioned stimuli |
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operant (or instrumental) conditioning |
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the type of learning in which behaviors are emitted (in the presence of specific stimuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments. |
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operant behaviors |
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behaviors designed to operate on the enviornment in a way that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant. |
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reinforcers |
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stimuli that follow a behavior and increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. |
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punishers |
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stimuli that follow a behavior and decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated |
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law of effect (principle of reinforcement) |
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Thorndike's theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be "stamped in" as learned behavior, and behavior that brings about discomfort will be "stamped out" |
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skinner box |
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a box often used in operant conditioning of animals; it limits the availbale reponses and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur. |
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shaping |
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reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior |
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positive reinforcers |
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events whose presence increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur |
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negative reinforcers |
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events whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur |
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punishment |
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any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur |
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avoidance training |
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learning a desirbale behavior to prevent the occurance of something unpleasant, such as punishment |
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avoidance training |
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learning a desirbale behavior to prevent the occurance of something unpleasant, such as punishment |
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learned helplessness |
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failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli |
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biofeedback |
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a technique that uses monitioring devices to provide precise information about internal physiological processes, such as heart rate, or blood pressure, to teach people to gain voluntary control over these functions. |
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nearofeedback |
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a biofeedback technique that monitors brain waves with the use of an EEG to teach people to gain voluntary control over their brain wave activity. |
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contingency |
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a reliable "if-then" relationship between two events, such as a CS and a US. |
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blocking |
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a process whereby prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously. |
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schedule of reinforcement |
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in operant conditioning, the rule for determining when a how often reinforvers will be delivered |
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schedule of reinforcement |
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in operant conditioning, the rule for determining when a how often reinforvers will be delivered |
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schedule of reinforcement |
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in operant conditioning, the rule for determining when a how often reinforvers will be delivered |
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fixed-interval schedule |
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a reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed length of time since the last reinforcemnt. |
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variable-interval schedule |
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a reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after varying lengths of time followig the last reinforcement. |
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fixed-ratio schedule |
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a reinforcement schedule in which the correct response is reinforced after a fixed number of correct responses |
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variable-ratio schedule |
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a reinforcement schedule in which a varying number of correct responses much occur before reinforcement is presented |
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extinction |
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a decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a learned response because of failure to continue pairing the US and CS (classical conditioning) or withholding of reinforcement (operant conditioning) |
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spontaneous recovery |
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the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without training. |
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stimulus control |
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control of conditioned reponses by cues or stimuli in the enviornment |
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stimulus generalization |
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the transfer of a leanred reponse to different but similar stimuli |
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stimulus discrimination |
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learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli |
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response generalization |
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giving a reponse that is somewhat different from the response originally learned to that stimulus |
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higher order conditioning |
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conditioning based on previous learning; the conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for further training. |
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primary reinforcers |
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reinforcers that are rewarding in themselves, such as food, water, or sex |
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secondary reinforcers |
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reinforcers whose value is acquired through associations with other primary or secondary reinforcers |
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cognitive learning |
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learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly obervable |
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latent learning |
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learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change |
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cognitive map |
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a learned mental image of a spatial enviornment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the enviornmental change |
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insight |
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learning that occurs rapidly as a result of understanding all the elements of a problem. |
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learning set |
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the ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are sovled. |
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observational (or vicarious) learning |
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learning by observing other people's behavior |
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social learning theorists |
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psychologists whose view of learning emphasizes the ability to learn by observing a model or receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner. |
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vicarious reinforcement (or punishment) |
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reinforcement or punishment experineced by models that affects the willingness of others to perform the behaviors they learned by observing those models |
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